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THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE 


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MACMILLAN'S   COMMERCIAL 


EDITED  BY 
CHEESMAN  A.   HERRICK,   PH.D. 

DIRECTOR   SCHOOL   OF  COMMERCE,    PHILADELPHIA  CENTRAL 
HIGH    SCHOOL 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE 


A    TEXT-BOOK 


BY 

SPENCER  TROTTER,  M.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  BIOLOGY  AND  GEOLOGY  IN  SWARTHMORE 

COLLEGE,  PENNSYLVANIA  ;   AUTHOR  OF  "  LESSONS 

IN  THE  NEW  GEOGRAPHY" 


f£0rfe 

THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

» 

LONDON:   MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 
1906 


All  rights  reserved 


0"* 


COPYRIGHT,  1903, 
Bv   THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY, 


Set  up,  electrotyped,  and  published  September,  1903.      Reprinted 
January,  1904;  February,  July,  1905;  January,  1906. 

EDUCATION  DEFT, 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  involves  two  points  of  view :  physical  geography  (physi- 
ography) ,  and  the  activities  of  men  and  organizations  of  men.  This 
makes  necessary  the  union  of  two  phases  of  thought,  often  treated  as 
unrelated,  one  dealing  with  physical  science,  the  other  with  economic 
affairs.  The  balance  between  these  has  been  sought  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  commercial  life  as  dependent  upon  physical  surroundings. 
This,  it  is  conceived,  should  be  the  method  for  the  study  of  the  geo- 
graphical basis  of  commerce.  If  commercial  geography  is  to  serve 
its  true  ends  in  education,  it  must  be  primarily  geography,  not  a  mere 
aggregation  of  commercial  data.  The  unrelated  facts  of  commerce 
have  slight  educational  value  ;  they  should  be  made  to  illustrate  some 
underlying  principle,  to  make  clear  a  natural  law,  to  stand  in  relation 
to  the  great  stream  of  causes  and  effects. 

For  the  purposes  of  introductory  study  as  outlined  in  the  present 
work,  facts  should  be  taken  with  a  certain  largeness  of  view,  and  will 
have  their  highest  utility  in  indicating  relative  conditions  at  a  par- 
ticular time.  The  actual  amount  of  the  wheat  crop  in  bushels  or  of 
the  coal  output  in  tons  for  a  given  year  is  of  little  significance,  unless 
comparison  is  made  with  similar  data  for  previous  years,  also  with 
the  statistics  of  population  and  with  data  for  other  countries.  Thus  is 
obtained  a  view  of  the  relative  increase  and  the  relation  of  the  com- 
modity or  industry  in  question.  Graphic  representation  to  illustrate 
the  increase  of  a  commodity  or  industry,  either  absolutely  or  in  relation 
to  population,  or  in  relation  to  the  increase  or  decrease  of  other 
commodities  or  industries,  or  in  comparison  with  production  in  other 
countries,  etc.,  has  vastly  more  meaning  than  has  any  one  set  of  facts. 

541868 


vi  Preface 

Graphic  representation  has  been  employed  in  the  present  work  to 
represent  the  approximate  condition  of  various  commercial  activities. 

Notable  among  the  sources  used  in  the  preparation  of  this  book 
are  the  special  and  general  reports  in  the  Monthly  Summary  of  Com- 
merce and  Finance  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics;  volumes  of  the 
Twelfth  Census ;  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States ;  Year- 
books of  Agriculture ;  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States ;  Con- 
sular Reports  and  reports  of  Boards  of  Trade ;  publications  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Republics ;  the  Statesman's  Year  Book ;  Hand- 
book of  Commercial  Geography  by  Chisholm ;  and  various  articles 
in  the  International  Geography  by  Davis,  Chisholm,  Mill,  Keltic, 
Herbertson,  Kirchhoff,  and  other  writers  no  less  worthy  of  mention. 
Use  has  also  been  made  of  many  other  works. 

The  author's  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  O.  P.  Austin,  of  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics,  for  his  courtesy  and  kindness  in  supplying  much  valuable 
data ;  also  to  Mr.  Frederic  Emory,  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  Com- 
merce, Thanks  are  extended  to  Principal  Charles  T.  McFarlane  of 
the  Brockport  (New  York)  State  Normal  School,  for  valuable  aid  in 
the  preparation  of  the  manuscript,  also  to  Mr.  Edmund  B.  Smith, 
of  the  Hyde  Park  High  School,  and  Dr.  William  H.  Allen  of  New 
York  City,  for  reading  the  book  in  proof.  Many  errors  have  been 
avoided  and  the  book  has  been  much  improved  from  the  suggestions 
of  these  gentlemen.  The  author  is  likewise  under  obligation  to  the 
Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum,  for  allowing  reproduction  of  cer- 
tain illustrations  and  furnishing  data. 

The  author's  illness  placed  the  final  revision  of  the  manuscript 
and  the  reading  of  proof  in  the  hands  of  the  editor  of  the  Series 
in  which  the  book  appears.  Dr.  Herrick  was  a  colaborer  in  the 
preparation  of  the  manuscript  and  supplied  the  suggestive  questions 
which  accompany  the  chapters.  To  him  the  author  desires  to  express 
a  sense  of  appreciation  of  helpfulness,  encouragement,  and  sound 

advice  which  were  always  freely  given. 

S.  T. 

SWARTHMORE  COLLEGE,  PENNSYLVANIA, 

June,  1903. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

MAPS  AND  PLATES  INSERTED xi 

MAPS  AND  DIAGRAMS  IN  THE  TEXT xii 

EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION xv 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  WORKING  METHOD xix 

PART   I 
INTRODUCTORY 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Relations  of  Geography  and  Commerce I 

CHAPTER  II 
Climate  and  Commerce 9 

CHAPTER  III 
The  Forest •'....       27 

CHAPTER  IV 
The  Man  Element  in  Commerce •       34 

PART   II 
THE  UNITED   STATES 

CHAPTER  V 
Regional  Geography  of  the  United  States 43 

CHAPTER  VI 

Resources :  Mineral  Products 60 

vii 


viii  Contents 

CHAPTER  VII 

PAGE 

Resources  :  Vegetable  Products   .........      87 

CHAPTER  VIII 
Resources:  Animal  Products        .....        •        •        •        .113 


CHAPTER  IX 
Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States      .......     124 

CHAPTER  X 
Wider  Trade  Outlook  of  the  United  States  .......     150 

CHAPTER  XI 
Outlying  Possessions  of  the  United  States     .        .        .        .        •        .        .162 

PART   III 

TRADE    OF    THE    WESTERN    HEMISPHERE 
OTHER    THAN    UNITED    STATES 

CHAPTER  XII 
The  Dominion  of  Canada     ..........     177 

CHAPTER  XIII 
Mexico  and  Central  America        .....        •        •        •        ,187 

CHAPTER  XIV 
The  West  Indies  ............    197 

CHAPTER  XV 
South  American  Countries    .....        •        •        •        •        •    207 

CHAPTER  XVI 
South  American  Countries  (continued}         ..,.»..    222 


Contents  ix 

PART   IV 
TRADE  OF  THE  EASTERN  HEMISPHERE 

CHAPTER  XVII 

PAGE 

The  Continent  of  Eurasia :  Europe  and  Asia 237 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland :  the  United  Kingdom 249 

CHAPTER  XIX 
France 261 

CHAPTER  XX 
Spain  and  Portugal 270 

CHAPTER  XXI 
Belgium  and  Holland 274 

CHAPTER  XXII 
The  German  Empire 280 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
Switzerland  and  Italy 288 

CHAPTER  XXIV 
Austria-Hungary 294 

CHAPTER  XXV 
The  Danube  Countries  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula 299 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
Scandinavian  Countries 3°5 


x  Contents 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

PAGE 

Russia  in  Europe          .        .        ........        •     3°9 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 
Russia  in  Asia      ............     3*3 

CHAPTER  XXIX 
The  Chinese  Empire     ........        .        .        •    319 

CHAPTER  XXX 
Japan  ..............    326 

CHAPTER  XXXI 
India    ..............    331 

CHAPTER  XXXII 
Other  Asiatic  Countries        ..........     33$ 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
Commercial  Africa        .....        ......     345 

CHAPTER  XXXIV 
Australia  and  the  Pacific  Islands  .......        .         .     359 

PART   V   (Conclusion} 
REVIEW  OF  WORLD   COMMERCE 

CHAPTER  XXXV 
World  Commerce          ...........     367 

APPENDIX,  STATISTICS,  AND  TABLES    .  ......    383 

INDEX.        .  ...........    389 


MAPS   AND   PLATES   INSERTED 
MAPS 

PAGE 

Regional  Map  of  the  United  States facing  43 

Productive  Areas  of  the  United   States;    Predominant  and  Minor 

Industries "124 

Principal  Railway  Systems  of  the  United  States    ....  "  137 

United  States  in  the  World's  Markets           .         .         .         .         .  "  150 

The  Russian  Empire  and  the  Siberian  Railroad    .         .         .         .  "  315 

Chief  Colonizing  Powers  of  the  World  and  their  Possessions         .  "  367 

PLATES 

Seven-masted  Schooner  Thomas  Lawson      ....       Frontispiece 
Marysville  (Montana)  Gold  Mill  and  Water  Power  at  Niagara  Falls  facing      50 

Ore  Docks,  Fairport,  Ohio    .                  64 

California  Lemon  Trees  and  Wheat  Harvesting  in  Dakota  .         .  "         101 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  ("  Soo ")  Canal 136 

Massachusetts  Road  before  Improvement  and  after  Improvement  "         140 

Manila  Tobacco  Factory  and  Sugar  Refinery         ....  "164 

Mexican  Maguey  Plants  and  Pulque  Shop "189 

Jamaica  Pineapple  Plantation  and  Trinidad  Asphalt  Lake    .         .  202 

Curing  Rubber  and  Loading  Cattle,  South  America      .         .         .  "         217 

Mountain  Pack  Train  and  Valparaiso  Harbor       ....  233 
Rhine  Vineyard,  Plain  of  North  Germany,  Dock  at  Cologne,  and  Rhine 

Bridge  of  Boats "285 

Caravan  —  Constantinople 3°3 

Weaving  Rice-straw  Mats  (Japan)  and  Dry  Dock  at  Nagasaki    .  "         326 

Singapore  Harbor "         343 

Panama  Canal  in  Construction  and  the  Suez  Canal  at  Port  Said  .  "         376 


MAPS   AND   DIAGRAMS    IN   THE   TEXT 

PAGE 

Mean  Annual  Isotherms 12 

Rainfall  of  the  United  States  in  Inches 16 

Advent  of  Spring 17 

Effects  of  Slope  Exposure  on  Vegetation .18 

Storm  Tracks  in  the  United  States 19 

Signals  of  United  States  Weather  Bureau     .......  22 

Forest  Reserves  and  National  Parks  of  Western  United  States  .  .  31 

Original  Areas  of  the  Races  of  Man 35 

Cities  of  the  Fall-line " 44 

Comparison  of  the  Areas  of  European  Countries  with  that  of  the  United 

States 53 

The  World's  Production  of  Pig  Iron 62 

Regions  producing  Iron  Ores 63 

World's  Production  of  Steel 64 

World's  Production  of  Copper 66 

World's  Distribution  of  Silver 70 

World's  Production  of  Silver 71 

World's  Production  of  Gold 72 

World's  Production  of  Coal 77 

World's  Distribution  of  Coal 78 

Distribution  of  Indian  Corn  Production 9° 

Distribution  of  Wheat  Production  .  . 92 

Wheat  Crop  of  the  World  approximated  in  Bushels  (1900)  93 
Movement  of  Cereal  Production  in  Relation  to  Movement  of  Population 

and  Manufacture 95 

Relation  of  Cereal  Production  of  the  United  States  to  Population  .  .  96 

Distribution  of  Rice 99 

Areas  of  Beet  and  Cane  Sugar  Production 100 

World's  Distribution  of  Cotton  Production 102 

Forest  Map  of  the  United  States 107 

Distribution  of  Tobacco  in  the  United  States 109 

Distribution  of  Sheep .116 

Fisheries  of  Eastern  North  America      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .119 

xii 


Maps  and  Diagrams  in  the  Text  xiii 


Increase  of  Cotton  Production  and  Increase  of  Population  in  the  United 

States 126 

Navigable  Waterways  of  the  United  States 133 

Productions  of  the  Lake  Region 135 

Increase  of  Miles  of  Railroad  in  the  United  States  compared  with  Increase 

of  Population 137 

Time  Belts  in  the  United  States 138 

Triangular  Territory  of  the  Great  Provision  Centers  of  the  United  States  .  144 
United  States'  Exports  of  Manufactured  Products  for  1901  .  .  .  .150 

United  States' Exports  of  Agricultural  Products  for  1901      ....  152 

Total  Foreign  Commerce  and  Per  Cent  in  American  Ships  .         .         .         .  153 

Export  and  Import  Trade  of  the  United  States 154 

Commerce  of  United  States  for  1901.     Exports  by  Countries        .         .         .  155 

Imports  into  United  States  by  Countries  (1901-1902) 156 

Approximated  Volumes  of  Exports  from  the  United  States  (1900-1901)  .  157 
Increase  of  Manufactures  compared  with  Increase  of  Population  .  .158 
Values  of  Principal  Commodities  imported  into  the  United  States  .  .159 

United  States'  Possessions  in  the  Pacific .167 

Total  Commerce  of  North  America  by  Countries  (1900)       ....  179 

Combined  Imports  and  Exports  of  Canada  (1900) 182 

Mexico  and  Central  America 191 

The  West  Indies 201 

Paths  of  West  India  Hurricanes   . 202 

Trade  Map  of  South  America 208 

South  America.     Density  of  Population 211 

World's  Distribution  of  Coffee 217 

The  World's  Production  of  Coffee  (1900) 218 

Combined  Imports  and  Exports  of  Argentina  (1900) 223 

Commerce  of  Chile  for  1900          .         . 232 

Commerce  of  South  America  by  Countries  (1900) 234 

Europe.     Density  of  Population 238 

Rainfall  of  Europe 239 

Map  of  Europe  showing  the  Occurrence  of  Iron  Ores 240 

Asia.     Density  of  Population 242 

Commerce  of  Europe  (1900) 243 

Principal  Railroad  Lines  of  Europe 245 

Total  Imports  and  Exports  of  Asia  (1900) 246 

Regional  Map  showing  the  Industrial  and  Agricultural  Divisions  of  England  250 

Coal  Fields  of  Great  Britain .         .253 

Rainfall  of  the  British  Isles 255 

Combined  Imports  and  Exports  of  Great  Britain  (1900)       ....  259 


xiv  Maps  and  Diagrams  in  the  Text 


PAGE 


France  (Relief  and  Railroads) 263 

Commerce  of  France  (1900) 268 

Relief  of  the  Low  Countries 274 

Commerce  of  Belgium  (1900) 277 

Combined  Imports  for  Home  Consumption  and   Exports  of  Netherlands 

0900) 278 

Physical  Regions  and  Products  of  Germany 280 

Combined  Imports  and  Exports  of  Germany  (1900) 286 

Commerce  of  Italy  (1900) 292 

Combined  Imports  and  Exports  of  Austria-Hungary  (1900)          .         .         .  296 

Map  of  Central  Europe 297 

Total  Commerce  for  All  the  Russias  (1900) 317 

Distribution  of  Tea  Production 320 

Commercial  China 322 

Combined  Imports  and  Exports  of  China  (1900) 323 

Rainfall  of  India,  showing  the  Effects  of  the  Southwest  Monsoon         .        .331 

Density  of  Population  and  Products  of  India 333 

Commerce  of  India  (1900)  approximated  in  Millions  of  Rupees  .        .        .  335 

Vegetation  Features  of  Africa 345 

Africa.     Density  of  Population 347 

Trade  Map  of  Africa .  349 

Commerce  of  Africa  (1900) 357 

Australia  and  Islands  of  the  Pacific.     Density  of  Population         .         .         .361 

The  World's  Production  of  Wool  (1901) 363 

Total  Commerce  of  the  World  (1900)  represented  by  Continents          .         .  369 

Section  of  Pilot  Chart  of  North  Atlantic,  Month  of  July        ....  373 

Principal  Land  and  Submarine  Telegraph  Systems  of  the  World  .         .         .  375 

Increase  of  Trade  of  the  Four  Great  Commercial  Countries          .         .         .  378 

Increase  of  Population  of  Principal  Countries  of  the  World           .         .         .  380 
Plates  showing  Values  in  United  States  and  other  Countries  of  Manufactures 

and  Agricultural  Products 385-388 


EDITOR'S    INTRODUCTION 

THE  book  presented  herewith  is  the  first  of  a  Series  designed  to 
cover  ultimately  the  whole  field  of  commercial  education.  Closely 
related  to  the  present  book,  and  to  follow  it  in  due  time,  are  three 
other  works :  one  dealing  with  commercial  products ;  one  with 
economics  applied  to  commercial  affairs ;  and  another  with  the 
history  of  commerce.  These  with  the  geography  will  serve  as  the 
backbone  of  the  Series,  and  the  other  books  to  be  published  will  be 
articulated  with  them. 

The  book  on  commercial  products  will  treat  of  ready-to-hand 
materials  of  commerce  from  the  standpoint  of  science  and  industrial 
processes.  It  will  deal  with  the  commodities  of  commerce  —  how 
secured,  parts  used,  how  prepared,  etc.  By  such  treatment  science 
becomes  an  eminently  practical  subject,  not  restricted  to  formal 
systems  of  classification  or  to  the  gross  anatomy  of  selected  types. 

The  Geography  of  Commerce  fixes  the  attention  on  the  earth  as 
an  agent  in  the  production  of  commodities  upon  which  human  life 
depends.  In  a  broad  way  it  treats  of  the  relations  of  men  to  their 
physical  surroundings.  The  aim  has  been  to  give  an  account  of 
the  physical  features,  the  products,  and  the  trade  of  the  United 
States,  also  a  more  general  view  of  these  for  the  world  at  large ; 
in  dealing  with  other  countries  emphasis  has  been  laid  on  their  trade 
relations  with  the  United  States.  It  is  believed  that  the  sequence 
of  the  different  parts  is  logical.  The  plan  followed  has  been  to  treat 
the  commerce  of  each  country  under  the  following  heads  :  first,  the 
physical  basis ;  second,  the  people  ;  third,  the  products ;  and  fourth, 
the  trade.  Thus  in  dealing  with  the  causal  relations  of  physical 
environment  to  men,  of  men  and  environment  to  products,  and 


xvi  Editor's  Introduction 

of  products  to  trade,  there  is  given  a  unity  that  will  make  the  book 
readily  adaptable  for  class  purposes. 

The  Geography  of  Commerce  was  prepared  to  make  clear  the 
present  conditions  of  trade,  but  with  the  attention  fixed  primarily  on 
the  physical  laws  and  facts  by  which  it  is  influenced.  It  is  geog- 
raphy from  the  science  side  and  is  in  conformity  with  the  ideal 
expressed  some  years  ago  by  President  Gilman,  now  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution,  "The  geography  of  the  future  will  be  written  by  a 
scientist,  preferably  by  a  biologist." 

The  Economics  of  Commerce  will  deal  with  the  present  conditions 
of  industry  and  trade,  but  will  treat  them  more  particularly  from  the 
standpoint  of  men  and  organizations  of  men.  Economics  will  be 
made  inductive  and  practical. 

The  History  of  Commerce  will  present  the  evolution  of  trade ; 
it  will  furnish  a  view  of  the  past  state  of  trade  as  Geography  and 
Economics  do  of  its  present  condition. 

This  Series  will  not  be  revolutionary;  the  authors  and  the  editor 
have  tried  the  old  and  the  new  in  our  system  of  education;  they 
have  become  somewhat  acquainted  with  practices  in  foreign  schools, 
and  have  made  themselves  familiar  with  the  best  of  the  books  used 
there ;  they  aim  to  present  a  group  of  books  that  will  hold  fast  to 
that  which  is  good  in  our  own  experience,  and  give  it  added  value 
through  fresh  applications  and  by  the  introduction  of  new  elements. 
The  books  are  the  result  of  years  of  experiment  and  planning. 
Neither  labor  nor  expense  will  be  spared  in  their  preparation  and 
presentation.  These  books  are  being  prepared  by  experienced 
teachers  who  have  due  regard  for  the  needs  of  class  instruction.  Sug- 
gestions for  the  improvement  of  this  Series  will  be  gratefully  received. 

We  have  reached  the  third  and  all- important  phase  of  the  question 
of  giving  commercial  instruction  in  public  high  schools.  The  first 
was,  Shall  such  instruction  be  attempted  ?  This  was  answered  in  the 
affirmative.  The  second  was,  What  shall  be  put  into  the  curriculum  ? 
By  general  agreement  four  years  of  studies  are  recommended,  these 


Editor's  Introduction  xvii 

to  be  of  stable  educational  worth.  The  final  question  in  answer  to 
which  the  present  Series  was  projected,  is,  How  get  out  of  the 
curriculum  the  educational  results  claimed  for  commercial  studies? 
Properly  prepared  teachers  and  suitable  text-books  are  the  requisites, 
and  the  second  is  not  less  important  than  the  first.  Commercial  educa- 
tion has  been  delayed  only  because  suitable  books  were  not  available. 

The  Geography  has  been  published  first  because  it  is  the  treatment 
of  commerce  that  can  be  most  satisfactorily  introduced  as  a  new 
branch  of  study.  Geography  is  the  most  universal  subject  of  the 
group.  It  is  a  study  of  the  earth,  but  in  its  relations  to  men;  hence 
geography  touches  on  science,  industry,  economics,  and  history. 

Dr.  Trotter's  book  is  on  the  "  practical  side  "  of  geography  which, 
according  to  a  recent  statement  of  Professor  Davis,  "  is  best  taught 
in  a  well-developed  course  of  commercial  geography  placed  after 
earlier  courses  on  general  geography  in  the  grades  and  a  course 
in  elementary  physiography  either  in  the  grades  or  in  an  early  high 
school  year."  Though  the  manuscript  of  this  book  was  prepared 
before  the  appearance  of  Professor  Davis's  formulation  of  the  require- 
ments for  a  commercial  geography,  it  fairly  answers  those  require- 
ments. After  expressing  the  belief  that  commercial  geography  if 
well  founded  and  well  developed  is  to  have  a  prominent  place  in  our 
system  of  education,  Professor  Davis  adds,  "  If  commercial  geography 
is  to  gain  the  place  it  deserves,  it  is  of  vital  importance  that  it  should 
be  taught  as  that  part  of  regional  geography  in  which  man,  the 
trader,  responds  so  marvelously  to  his  environing  conditions."1 

Probably  the  further  we  look  into  the  matter  the  better  we  shall 
agree  that  the  attempted  sharp  division  of  geography  into  political, 
physical,  and  commercial  is  misleading  and  illogical.  Political  geog- 
raphy may  well  involve  physical  and  commercial  elements ;  physical 
geography  can  be  given  practical  application  ;  and  commercial  geog- 
raphy should  have  the  basis  of  the  physical.  Dr.  Trotter's  book  is 

1  Geography  in  the  Schools,  p.  48.  See  Bibliography,  p.  7.  Every  teacher  of 
geography  should  study  this  monograph. 


xviii  Editor's  Introduction 

not  what  so  long  has  been  to  students  the  purposeless  pure  science  of 
physical  geography.  Under  the  head  of  regional  geography  the  best 
of  the  physical  has  been  retained,  and  it  is  made  instinct  with  meaning 
by  practical  application.  Nor  is  the  book  a  commercial  geography 
of  the  sort  that  "  is  in  the  woods,  without  compass  or  sun,  lost  among 
the  brambles  of  infinite  detail."  Instead  of  the  "  woods  "  of  principles 
being  obscured  by  the  "  trees  "  of  facts,  principles  and  facts  are  so 
presented  that  it  is  possible  to  see  at  once  the  woods  and  the  trees. 

Several  chapters  of  the  book  have  been  used  for  class  instruction ; 
all  the  proof  has  been  studied  by  high  school  students,  and  the 
matter  so  altered  as  to  bring  it  fairly  within  their  comprehension. 
The  aim  has  been  to  be  perfectly  clear,  but  this  does  not  imply  that 
there  is  no  effort  to  be  put  forward  by  teacher  and  pupil.  In  several 
instances,  for  example,  monetary  values  are  given  in  units  of  foreign 
countries,  so  that  by  performing  the  reductions  (by  use  of  table, 
p.  383)  the  student  will  learn  the  monetary  standard  of  different 
countries,  and  something  of  the  computations  for  foreign  exchange. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  furnish  the  book  with  a  working  equip- 
ment as  complete  as  possible.  The  subject  is  new,  and  it  has  been 
thought  wise  to  append  lists  of  books  for  further  consultation.  These 
lists  are  meant  merely  as  suggestions  as  to  some  of  the  available 
newer  material.  Difficulties  sometimes  arise  in  using  such  reading 
lists,  and  to  point  the  way  in  using  those  furnished,  supplementary 
questions  and  topics  are  supplied.  Many  of  these  are  an  outgrowth 
from  the  text,  but  some  of  them  relate  to  matters  outside  of  the  text, 
and  refer  directly  to  the  book  lists.  The  questions  have  been  in  part 
compiled  from  those  published  by  the  London  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, the  County  Council  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  the 
Board  of  Regents  of  New  York  State,  and  those  prepared  to 
accompany  Longmans'  School  Geography.  The  question  lists  are 
suggestive  merely,  and  will  be  most  useful  in  promoting  other  ques- 
tions upon  the  text  and  outside  of  it. 

C.  A.   H. 

PHILADELPHIA,  August,  1903. 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    A    WORKING 
METHOD 

A  BOOK  of  this  sort  would  be  most  valuable  if  it  were  truly  a  text, 
to  be  enlarged  upon  by  outside  reading  and  class  discussion.  The 
present  book  is  complete  in  itself  and  may  be  made  the  basis  of 
class  recitation,  but  a  higher  value  will  be  realized  if  it  furnishes  the 
means  for  wider  study  and  class  teaching.  To  make  the  latter  more 
feasible  two  definite  lines  are  suggested  for  supplementary  work: 
(i)  the  collection  and  use  of  a  museum  of  commercial  materials; 
and  (2)  the  building  up  and  utilization  of  a  reference  library  on 
commercial  geography. 

Though  the  commercial  museum  idea  is  new,  it  does  not  present 
great  difficulties.  A  few  dollars  for  bottles  and  labels  will  give  the 
start.  Cereals,  fibers,  woods,  tea,  coffee,  cacao,  starches,  sugars, 
ores,  metals,  coal,  clay,  brick,  building  stone,  pigments,  gums,  oils, 
hides  and  skins,  leather,  etc.,  can  be  readily  secured.  Varieties  of 
the  different  materials  should  be  shown  in  a  raw  state,  in  various 
stages  of  manufacture,  and  as  finished  products.  Special  attention 
should  be  given  to  local  industries  and  products.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  schools  in  different  sections  may  be  able  ultimately  to  exchange 
their  surplus  materials  to  mutual  advantage.  In  every  community 
will  be  found  manufacturers  and  dealers  who  will  contribute  the 
small  amounts  of  material  needed  for  illustrative  purposes.  Indeed, 
a  simple  request  to  a  class  will  often  bring  a  goodly  return  of 
products  for  a  museum. 

If  funds  are  available,  a  tolerably  good  museum  can  be  bought 
outright ;  but  this  method  of  obtaining  one  is  not  necessary,  perhaps 


xx  Suggestions  for  a  Working  Method 

it  is  not  desirable.  Two  inexpensive  methods  are  known  by  which 
materials  have  been  gathered  aad  arranged.  One  is  to  assign  differ- 
ent products  to  individual  students,  furnish  them  with  credentials, 
and  let  them  solicit  and  arrange  the  material  under  the  teacher's 
supervision.  A  fairly  complete  commercial  museum  has  been  thus 
collected  at  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia.  A  good  working  collec- 
tion has  been  made  in  a  very  different  way  by  Mr.  Frank  O.  Carpen- 
ter of  the  English  High  School  in  Boston.  Mr.  Carpenter  bought 
his  own  bottles  and  cases,  and  gathered  and  arranged  the  products, 
placing  them  in  the  school  as  a  loan  collection.  .Where- the  former 
method  can  be  put  into  practice  it  would  seem  more  promising  of 
educational  results. 

Ordinary  exhibition  cases  or  simple  book  shelves  furnish  the  dis- 
play space  necessary  for  a  commercial  museum.  Such  a  museum 
should  be  kept  either  about  the  walls  of  the  class-room  or  adjacent 
to  it.  It  is  believed  that  any  teacher  who  gives  this  supplementary 
work  a  fair  trial  for  a  year  will  be  gratified  at  the  showing  he  is  able  to 
make  and  the  interest  he  can  arouse.  The  single  book  most  useful 
for  this  work  is  Yeats,  Natural  History  of  Raw  Materials  of  Com- 
merce (London:  Philip  &  Son.  Price  6^.). 

The  special  library  also  is  largely  a  matter  of  personal  attention, 
and  calls  for  but  a  limited  expenditure  in  money.  There  should  be 
for  reference,  preferably  on  a  reading  table,  in  the  class-room,  a 
commercial  atlas,  a  few  standard  books,  and  numerous  documents 
and  reports. 

Of  the  atlases  in  English,  Bartholomew's  Commercial  Atlas  is 
probably  the  best  (Macmillan  Co.,  $  i.oo)  ;  but  one  in  the  German, 
more  modern  and  much  superior,  is  Scobel,  Handels- Atlas  (Leip- 
zig: Verhagen  and  Klasing.  Price  6  marks).  It  is  desirable  to 
have  in  the  class-room,  also,  a  large  wall  map  or  chart.  A  very 
satisfactory  one  is  Johnson's  Commercial  Chart  (London :  Johnson 
Map  Concern).  Mention  should  be  made  of  the  maps  in  numerous 
government  reports,  particularly  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics.  Many 


Suggestions  for  a  Working  Method  xxi 

of  these  are  large,  being  folded  as  insets.  Such  maps  when  taken 
out  and  mounted  on  muslin  will  be  found  useful.  By  use  of  outline 
maps  students  can  be  given,  at  a  minimum  expenditure  of  time, 
much  valuable  practice  in  fixing  the  distribution  of  products,  the 
location  of  industries,  the  centering  and  direction  of  trade,  etc. 
Very  satisfactory  outline  maps  are  those  of  the  McKinley  Publish- 
ing Co.  of  Philadelphia.  (Large  size,  75  cents  a  hundred.)  The 
same  publishers  also  furnish  coordinate  paper  for  the  representation 
of  statistical  matter  on  graphs  and  diagrams. 

The  most  indispensable  book  for  reference  purposes  is  the  States- 
man's Year  Book  (Macmillan  Co.,  Annual  Issues,  $3.00).  The 
Commercial  Yearbook  (Journal  of  Commerce,  New  York  City) 
furnishes  a  useful  compend  of  statistics,  as  does  the  annual  Statis- 
tical Abstract  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Statistics  (formerly  in  the 
Treasury  Department).  The  former  is  $1.00,  and  the  latter  may 
be  had  on  request.  The  British  Statistical  Abstract  for  Foreign 
Countries  contains  much  valuable  information  (London  :  Eyre  and 
Spottiswoode,  is.  6d.).  The  Shipping  World  Yearbook  (Annual) 
gives  the  tariff  arrangements  of  all  nations,  also  detailed  information 
of  important  ports,  —  their  incoming  and  outgoing  trade,  harbor 
facilities,  etc.  (London :  The  Shipping  World.  Price  to  foreign 
countries  6s.).  A  pamphlet  of  value  is  the  World's  Commerce 
and  American  Industries,  published  by  the  Philadelphia  Commer- 
cial Museum,  1903.  (Price  50  cents.)  A  useful  and  inexpensive 
reference  book  is  the  annual  almanac  issued  by  various  newspapers ; 
the  one  by  the  New  York  World  is  particularly  good  (25  cents). 

The  International  Geography,  prepared  by  a  group  of  scholars, 
is  clearly  the  best  single  volume  on  geography  (Appleton  and  Co., 
$3.50).  Of  the  distinctively  commercial  geographies,  the  Handbook 
by  Chisholm  is  still  the  best  (Longmans,  Green,  and  Co.,  $4.00). 
Zehden's  Commercial  Geography  is  a  typical  German  text-book 
which  may  be  had  in  English  translation  (London  :  Blackie  and 
Son,  5.$-.).  A  recent  French  book  of  distinct  value  is  Du  Bois  and 


xxii  Suggestions  for  a   Working  Method 

Kergomard's  Precis  de  Geographic  Economique  (Paris  :  1903,  Masson 
and  Co.,  8  francs).  Several  briefer  commercial  geographies  have 
appeared  in  England,  among  them  Mill's,  Conner's,  Smith's,  and 
Lyde's.  Others  have  been  published  in  this  country,  notably  those 
by  Adams,  Macfarlane,  Redway,  and  Tilden. 

The  government  reports  are  mostly  for  gratuitous  distribution. 
They  may  sometimes  be  secured  by  application  to  the  heads  of  the 
bureaus,  or  departments,  by  which  they  are  prepared  ;  but  the  num- 
bers for  such  distribution  are  usually  limited,  and  they  can  be  had 
with  less  delay  by  presenting  a  request  through  a  member  of  Con- 
gress. The  Consular  Reports  should  come  first,  to  be  followed  by 
the  regular  and  special  reports  of  the  Bureaus  of  Commerce  and 
Statistics  (now  consolidated  in  the  new  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Labor)  ;  also  the  reports  of  the  new  Bureau  of  Manufactures 
in  the  department  just  named.  There  should  be  had,  if  possible, 
the  volumes  on  Agriculture  and  Manufactures  of  the  Twelfth 
Census,  and,  in  any  event,  the  Abstract  of  this  census  and  the 
reports  of  the  Permanent  Census  Bureau.  Add  to  the  foregoing, 
the  Yearbooks  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  annual  and 
other  reports  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  and  special  reports  of  the 
Foreign  Markets  Section  of  the  same  department;  the  annual 
volume  of  the  Geological  Survey  on  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United 
States ;  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs  in  the  War  Depart- 
ment ;  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Navigation ;  and  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  This  list 
is  by  no  means  exhaustive,  but  it  serves  to  indicate  how  rich  are 
the  stores  of  information  furnished  by  our  government. 

Slightly  different  from  the  preceding  in  organization,  is  the  Inter- 
national Bureau  of  American  Republics.  It  controls  its  own  litera- 
ture, which  is  usually  sold  at  a  nominal  price.  Its  Monthly  Bulletin 
and  Handbooks  are  of  first  importance  in  dealing  with  the  repub- 
lics of  the  western  hemisphere.  Of  special  value  for  many  coun- 
tries are  selected  reports  of  the  British  Board  of  Trade  and  the 


Suggestions  for  a  Working  Method  xxiii 

Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports  of  the  British  Foreign  Office, 
selections  from  the  Miscellaneous  and  Annual  Series.  These  are 
sold  separately  at  a  very  low  price  (Eyre  and  Spottiswoode,  London). 

A  recent  study  of  the  United  States  from  a  British  standpoint  is 
suggestive  :  American  Industrial  Problems,  by  Lawson  (McClure, 
Phillips  &  Co.,  $2.00).  A  very  useful  book  is  Clow's  Introduction 
to  the  Study  of  Commerce  (Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  $1.25).  A  valu- 
able English  book  along  similar  lines  is  Gait  and  Gambaro's  Les- 
sons in  Commerce  (London  :  35-.  6rf.).  Slightly  different  in  character, 
but  also  to  be  recommended,  is  Yeats,  Recent  and  Existing  Commerce 
(London  :  Philip  &  Son,  6j.)« 

The  selection  of  books  and  documents  from  the  above  list  should 
be  supplemented  by  magazine  literature  and  trade  journals.  Poole's 
Index  to  Periodical  Literature  gives  a  survey  of  the  field.  The 
Cumulative  Index  to  Periodical  Literature  (Cleveland,  Ohio)  makes 
available  the  contents  of  magazines  in  advance  of  Poole's  Index.  Of 
the  magazines  themselves  there  should  be  mentioned  first  the 
Magazine  of  Commerce  (London).  This  is  an  illustrated  monthly, 
dealing  with  various  phases  of  commercial  affairs.  Its  first  number 
appeared  in  November,  1902,  and  up  to  date  it  has  been  ably  written 
and  highly  artistic.  (Foreign  subscription  rate,  iSs.  per  year.)  The 
World's  Work  and  the  Review  of  Reviews  are  monthlies  of  our 
own  country  which  should  be  mentioned.  The  latter  furnishes  a 
summary  of  the  contents  of  other  leading  magazines. 

If  possible  a  few  of  the  standard  trade  papers  should  be  secured, 
such  as  the  American  Agrictilturist  (New  York  and  Chicago, 
$1.00,  Weekly)  ;  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal (New  York, 
$5.00,  Weekly)  ;  Financial  and  Commercial  Chronicle  (New  York, 
$10.00,  Weekly);  The  Iron  Age  (New  York,  $1.00,  Weekly; 
The  Textile  World  (Boston,  $2.00,  Monthly)  ;  The  Railroad  Gazette 
(New  York,  $4.20,  Weekly)  ;  Board  of  Trade  Journal  (London, 
Weekly,  \d.  per  number)  ;  The  Journal  of  Geography  should  be 
included  in  this  list  (Lancaster,  Pa.,  $1.50). 


xxiv  Suggestions  for  a  Working  Method 

Publishers  of  trade  journals  have  sometimes  been  made  to  see 
that  it  is  to  their  advantage  to  have  young  people  being  educated 
for  business,  familiar  with  their  publications,  and  when  they  have  so 
seen  they  have  given  schools  complimentary  subscriptions.  Business 
houses  often  get  a  large  number  of  journals  which  are  read  and 
abstracted,  after  which  they  go  for  old  paper.  Such  journals  would 
be  cheerfully  given  to  schools.  Students  will  sometimes  contribute 
recent  issues  of  magazines. 

More  important  than  getting  these  papers  is-  the  use  to  be  made 
of  them.  One  successful  method  is  to  have  them  read  and  cuttings 
made  of  important  articles  as  a  class  exercise.  In  thus  working 
under  the  eye  of  the  teacher,  students  get  a  breadth  of  view  in  the 
subject,  and  training  of  the  selective  faculty.  The  cuttings  should 
be  classified  and  kept  in  envelopes  or  folders.  A  simple  "  vertical 
letter  file  "  has  been  found  satisfactory  as  a  device  for  classification. 
This  works  on  the  card  index  principle,  can  be  used  for  minute  or 
loose  classification,  and  is  capable  of  indefinite  expansion.  Plain 
board  boxes,  with  folded  sheets  of  paper  and  pasteboard  dividers,  will 
serve  as  a  substitute  for  the  vertical  letter  file. 

No  statement  on  method  would  be  complete  without  mention  of 
lantern  illustration.  The  heliostat,  stereopticon,  oxyhydrogen,  and 
electric  lanterns  are  familiar.  It  is  preferable  to  have  dark  shades 
in  the  class-room,  thus  making  it  possible  to  use  the  illustrations  in 
connection  with  the  subjects  which  they  illustrate.  The  stereoscope 
may  be  used  to  advantage,  especially  in  small  classes.  Diagrams, 
maps,  statistics,  etc.,  may  be  prepared  for  lantern  projection  by 
drawing  on  glass  with  an  ink  thickened  with  gum. 

C.  A.  H. 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE 

PART   I 

INTRODUCTORY 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  RELATIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND  COMMERCE 

1.  Scope  of  the  Work. — This  book  aims  to  describe  commercial 
life  as  it  is  influenced  and  determined  by  geographical  conditions. 
To  understand  the  relations  of  geography  and  commerce,  the  various 
industries  and  occupations  of  men  must  be  studied  in  the  light  of  their 
dependence  upon  physiographic  surroundings.  •  "  Physiographic  "  as 
distinct  from  "  geographic,"  is  taken  to  include  the  physical  environ- 
ment, as  climate,  soil,  topography,  and  the  distribution  of  resources. 
Geography,  as  distinct  from  physiography,  includes  not  only  the 
physical  environment,  but  the  human  element  as  well.  Geography 
is  used  in  the  following  pages,  in  its  broad  meaning,  and  includes 
an  account  of  man  and  nature,  and  the  interactions  which  are  an 
outcome  of  their  relationship  to  each  other.  Commerce  grows  out 
of  the  adjustment  of  men  to  their  physical  environment.  The  study 
of  regions,  it  has  well  been  said,  passes  naturally  into  what  regions 
produce,  and  similarly  the  study  of  men  leads  to  what  men  make.1 
Thus  the  geography  of  commerce  includes  what  is  coming  to  be 
understood  as  economic  geography,  —  the  production  and  distribu- 
tion of  raw  commodities ;  and  industrial  geography,  —  or  the  loca- 
tion of  manufactures  and  the  distribution  of  their  products. 

Commerce  enables  men  to  give  the  goods  they  produce,  or  that 

1  Redway,  New  Basis  of  Geography,  p.  176. 
?  I 


2  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

are  produced  in  the  region  they  inhabit,  for  goods  not  produced ;  its 
utility  is  in  that  men  of  each  region  can  enjoy  the  productions  of  all 
regions.  The  geography  of  commerce  should  furnish  first,  an  account 
of  the  natural  raw  products  of  the  earth,  and  the  localization  of 
industries.  Unequal  distribution  of  products  necessitates  their 
transfer,  hence  the  subject  also  includes  a  description  of  the  earth  as 
an  agent  that  aids  or  hinders  in  transportation.  In  last  analysis,  life 
is  conditioned  by  physical  environment ;  the  geography  being  studied 
is  therefore  a  statement  of  the  facts  and  laws  of  the  physical  universe 
affecting  man's  economic  life ;  or,  it  deals  with  the  earth  in  its  relation 
to  man's  physical  well-being.  In  brief,  the  geography  of  commerce 
sets  forth  the  things  that  the  earth  does  or  is  made  to  do,  in  supplying 
the  material  needs  of  men.  This  book  aims  to  give  an  eye  picture  of 
world  trade,  from  the  view  point  of  physical  facts  and  laws.  In  this 
picture  the  bold  lines  are  the  centers  of  production,  great  commercial 
cities,  and  commercial  routes,  with  the  reasons  therefor.  These  sub- 
jects are  treated  with  special  regard  for  the  commercial  interests  of 
the  United  States. 

2.  The  Physiographic  Control  of  Commerce. — The  commercial 
life  of  peoples  is  based  primarily  on  the  physiographic  conditions 
of  the  regions  which  they  inhabit.  By  physiographic  conditions  is 
meant  such  things  as  the  relief  and  drainage,  of  the  land,  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  the  contour  of  the  shore  line,  and  the  climate.  Relief  pro- 
duces slope,  which  bears  directly  upon  agricultural  production,  and 
likewise  influences  in  transportation.  Thus,  a  broad,  gently  slop- 
ing plain  is  favorable  to  agriculture.  Mountain  ranges  offer  bar- 
riers to  transportation ;  on  the  other  hand,  a  river  flowing  through 
a  region  affords  a  natural  highway  of  transportation,  either  by  its 
waters,  or  by  the  lowlands  along  its  valley.  The  river  valley, 
again,  especially  in  its  lower  portion,  is  covered  by  a  rich  soil  which 
the  water  has  spread  over  its  flood  plain.  The  land  of  Egypt  is 
richly  productive  because  it  is  the  flood  plain  of  the  Nile.  Similar 
flood  plains  are  found  in  many  other  river  valleys. 


The  Relations  of  Geography  and  Commerce  3 

The  nature  of  the  soil  is  also  a  determining  factor  of  commercial 
life.  The  admixture  of  sand  and  clay  forms  the  fertile  loam  which 
contains  the  elements  of  plant  food ;  the  presence  or  absence  of 
loam,  therefore,  determines  the  presence  or  absence  of  agriculture 
on  any  scale.  Human  welfare  ultimately  rests  on  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  for  from  it  man  draws  directly  or  indirectly,  his  food,  clothing, 
and  shelter.  Soils  result  from  the  "weathering"  or  breaking  up  of 
rocks  under  the  action  of  rain,  frost,  and  other  atmospheric  agencies. 
The  irregular  particles  which  make  up  a  soil  do  not  fit  closely 
together,  but  leave  interspaces  which  are  filled  by  air  or  water  or 
both.  Under  normal  conditions  each  tiny  particle  of  soil  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  film  of  moisture.  The  root  hairs  of  plants  attach 
themselves  to  the  particles  of  soil  and  absorb  the  mineral  matters 
that  are  dissolved  in  this  moisture.  The  air  is  likewise  of  great 
importance  to  plant  life.  Soils  are  found  to  differ  as  to  their 
porosity.  Thus  in  clay  the  particles  fit  so  closely  together  as  to 
leave  comparatively  little  interspace.  This  produces  a  stiff,  compact 
soil  through  which  water  and  air  find  their  way  with  difficulty.  Such 
a  soil  is  unsuited  to  the  growth  of  many  kinds  of  plants.  On  the 
other  hand,  sandy  soils  are  loose,  with  comparatively  large  inter- 
spaces. The  ease  with  which  these  drain,  renders  them  also  ill 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  many  kinds  of  plants.  A  mingling  of  sand 
and  clay  (loam)  combines  the  requisite  conditions  for  the  great 
majority  of  the  grasses  and  other  useful  plants,  for  both'  the  ingredi- 
ents are  rich  in  the  elements  of  plant  food.  Many  limestones  also 
form  excellent  soils,  for  they  are  rich  in  plant  food  which  is  readily 
dissolved  by  percolating  water.  The  alluvial  mud  of  rivers,  and  old 
lake  bottoms,  is  a  fertile  mixture  of  sand  and  clay.  The  productive 
fertility  of  soils  also  depends  largely  upon  the  presence  of  decaying 
organic  matter,  both  vegetable  and  animal.  The  mold  or  "humus" 
which  forms  the  surface  soil  of  many  regions  (notably  of  forest  lands), 
gradually  works  downward  and  mixes  with  the  earth.  Bacterial  or- 
ganisms, earthworms,  and  other  living  beings  perform  an  important 


4  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

service  to  plant  life  by  converting  various  substances  into  available 
food  for  plants.  Darwin  estimated  that  in  England,  from  seven  to 
eighteen  tons  of  soil  per  acre  were  annually  brought  to  the  surface 
and  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  air  through  the  agency  of  earth- 
worms. 

In  a  word,  a  soil,  to  meet  the  fullest  requirements  of  agriculture, 
should  contain  the  needful  food  elements  of  plant  life,  and  should  be 
easily  broken  up  by  the  plow  and  harrow,  neither  too  stiff  and  com- 
pact nor  too  loose  and  porous. 

The  effects  of  contour  are  seen  in  Europe,  for  example,  where 
a  long  and  tortuous  coast  line  incloses  inland-reaching  bodies  of  sea 
water.  These  bays  and  seas  have  had  a  direct  effect  in  stimulating 
commercial  activity  by  favoring  a  seafaring  life,  and  rendering  access 
to  the  ocean  highway  easy.  Rivers  discharging  into  the  sea  by 
sunken  valleys  or  estuaries,  and  deep  inlets  of  the  ocean  of  whatever 
kind,  when  other  conditions  exist,  form  natural  harbors  for  shipping. 
The  African  continent  presents  the  reverse  of  these  conditions  with 
comparatively  unindented  coast  line  and  scarcity  of  inlets.  Irregu- 
larity of  shore  lines  is  in  large  measure  the  result  of  a  sinking  of  land 
in  a  past  age,  the  higher  portions  of  the  land  remaining  as  islands, 
peninsulas,  etc.  Islands  tend  to  foster  trade  by  the  comparative 
smallness  of  their  areas  which  forces  an  increasing  population  to  offer 
manufactured  products  in  exchange  for  the  food-stuffs  and  commod- 
ities of  other  countries.  Islands  also,  by  their  isolation,  afford  pro- 
tection from  the  devastating  effects  of  invasion,  and  in  this  way 
foster  an  industrial  life.  Great  Britain  and  Japan  are  illustrations  of 
the  effects  of  an  island  environment. 

Climate  exerts  a  controlling  influence  upon  commerce  through  its 
two  factors  of  temperature  and  moisture.  The  food  plants  of  the 
temperate  zone  require  a  summer  temperature  sufficient  to  insure 
their  maturing.  The  exact  amount  of  temperature  which  each  kind 
requires,  varies  according  to  its  nature.  Thus  corn  requires  a  greater 
sum  total  of  heat  than  wheat,  and  rye  and  barley  a  less.  The  two 


The  Relations  of  Geography  and  Commerce  5 

last  are  consequently  grown  farther  north  than  wheat,  and  wheat 
farther  north  than  corn.  Tropical  and  subtropical  regions  are  areas 
of  highest  production  because  of  the  greater  amount  of  heat  present 
throughout  the  year.  The  proximity  of  a  considerable  body  of  ocean 
water  tends  to  equalize  climate,  since  water  absorbs  a  relatively  large 
amount  of  heat  and  parts  with  it  very  slowly.  An  oceanic  climate 
therefore  is  not  marked  by  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  which 
characterize  the  climate  of  the  interior  continental  land  masses. 
The  proper  supply  of  moisture  is  quite  as  important  as  temperature. 
The  average  annual  amount  and  the  distribution  of  rainfall  affect  the 
character  of  occupations  in  a  region.  A  region  of  abundant  precipi- 
tation is  a  region  favorable  to  agriculture,  providing  the  conditions 
of  slope,  soil,  and  temperature  be  likewise  favorable.  Forest  regions 
are  usually  in  areas  of  high  average  annual  rainfall.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  region  of  less  rainfall  may  be  grass-covered  steppe  land,  such 
as  the  Great  Plains  of  the  western  United  States,  and  thus  be  adapted 
to  grazing ;  or  it  may  be  a  desert,  the  difference  depending  largely 
upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  prevailing  winds.  The  relative 
position  of  highlands  and  mountain  ranges  in  causing  precipitation 
on  their  upper  windward  slopes,  largely  determines  the  degree 
of  aridity  or  humidity  of  the  regions  on  both  sides.  Thus  the 
western  plains  of  the  United  States  are  arid  from  a  lessened  rainfall 
because  the  prevailing  westerly  winds  have  been  deprived  of  their 
moisture  in  crossing  the  mountains. 

It  should  be  noted  also  that  mountain  ranges  are  usually  rich  in 
mineral  wealth.  In  the  mountains,  conditions  were  favorable  for  the 
formation  of  mineral  veins  and  deposits,  which  subsequent  erosion 
and  atmospheric  weathering  have  laid  bare  in  many  places. 

3.  Fundamental  Principles  of  Commercial  Geography .  —  The  three 
basal  interests  of  the  Geography  of  Commerce  are  Production, 
Transportation,  and  Consumption.  Under  production  naturally  falls 
consideration  of  the  resources  of  a  region  as  dependent  upon 
soil,  climate,  topography,  etc.  Transportation  is  conditioned  by 


6  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

topography  and  deals  with  such  questions  as  the  presence  and  posi 
tion  of  navigable  rivers  and  lakes,  mountain  ranges,  and  divides ; 
transportation  seeks  to  cut  canals  and  build  railroads  along  the  lines 
of  least  resistance.  Engineering  skill  has  accomplished  wonderful 
results.  The  tunneling  of  a  mountain  is  almost  equivalent  to  its  removal 
as  a  barrier  to  transportation,  and  the  same  result  is  accomplished  by 
the  bridging  of  rivers  and  estuaries.  Under  the  head  of  consump- 
tion comes  the  consideration  of  cities  as  centers  of  population,  de- 
pendent upon  such  conditions  of  commercial  activity,  as  manufacture 
and  transportation.  In  modern  times  the  growth  of  a  city  is 
largely  dependent  upon  its  position  for  trade.  New  York  has 
become  a  metropolis  by  virtue  of  its  being  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Hudson,  commanding  the  ocean  highway  on  the  one  hand  and  a  vast 
area  of  interior  country  on  the  other.  Philadelphia  is  a  manufactur- 
ing center  from  its  geographical  position  in  relation  to  the  coal  fields. 
Cities  are  disbursers  of  either  raw  or  manufactured  products,  —  rarely 
of  both.  The  New  England  towns  became  manufacturing  centers 
from  the  fact  that  the  soil  and  the  long  and  rigorous  winter  offered 
slight  inducements  to  agricultural  pursuits,  and  in  New  England 
the  fast-flowing  streams  afforded  vast  sources  of  water  power 
for  manufacturing  purposes.  Boston  commands  the  ocean  and 
is  a  disburser  of  manufactured  products.  On  the  other  hand, 
Charleston,  Savannah,  and  the  other  cities  of  the  South  Atlantic 
seaboard  and  of  the  Gulf,  have  become,  chiefly,  disbursers  of  raw 
products  from  their  geographical  relation  to  the  great  corn,  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  sugar  growing  lands  of  the  southern  Coastal  Plain. 

The  relation  between  the  physiographic  and  the  human  elements 
in  commerce  is  only  a  phase  of  utilizing  the  resources  of  the  earth. 
Resources  represent  so  much  power  that  is  stored  away,  and  that 
must  be  liberated  by  working  intelligence  in  order  that  it  may  create 
the  materials  upon  which  human  life  depends.  The  interaction  of 
man  and  nature  finds  its  expression  in  the  production,  transportation, 
and  consumption  of  goods. 


The  Relations  of  Geography  and  Commerce 


SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND   TOPICS 

1.  In  what  sense  is  geography  an  independent  subject,  and  in  what  sense  is  it 
composite?     What  are  the  advantages  from  its  being  a  "  meeting  place  "  of  other 
sciences?      State  the  practical  uses  to  be  served  by  a  study  of  the  geography 
of  commerce.     What  is    its  relation  to   physical   geography?     (See  Davis  and 
De  Garmo,  noted  below.) 

2.  Note  the  following  summary  by  Captain  Mahan  (Sea  Power,  Chapter  II)  :  — 

"The  principal  conditions  affecting  the  sea  power  of  nations  are  as  follows: 
I.  Geographical  Position;  II.  Physical  Conformation,  including,  as  connected 
therewith,  natural  productions  and  climate;  III.  Extent  of  Territory;  IV.  Num- 
ber of  Population;  V.  Character  of  the  People  ;  VI.  Character  of  the  Govern- 
ment, including  therein  the  national  institutions."  It  will  be  observed  that,  of  the 
six  points,  three  have  to  deal  with  the  physical  environment  and  three  with  men. 
Keep  this  summary  in  mind  and  apply  it  to  the  commerce  of  the  United  States 
and  other  nations. 

3.  With  the  Amazon  Valley  as  an  illustration,  show  how  nature  has  been  too 
prolific.     Cite  other  illustrations  and  explain  them. 

4.  Point    out   advantages   and  disadvantages  of  an  island  environment  to  a 
commercial  people. 

5.  With  coal  as  an  illustration,  show  the  relation  between  energy  and  working 
forces.     Indicate  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  energy  of  coal  is  turned  into 
working  forces. 

6.  Establish  the  relations  between  the  physiographic  features  in  the  region 
where  you  live,  and  the  industries  and  occupations  being  carried  on  there. 


Books  to  be  Consulted1 

*Davis,  W.  M.,  Geography  in  the  Schools.     University  of  Chicago  Press;    1902. 
*De  Garmo,  Correlation  of  Studies.     Educational  Review;   May,  1893. 
*Redway,  The  New  Basis  of  Geography.     Macmillan  Co.;  1901. 
**Keltie,  in   the  International  Geography ;    Chapter  X,  Political  and  Applied 
Geography. 

1  Books  especially  recommended  are  marked  with  a  double  star  (**)  ;  those  less 
useful  but  also  of  special  value  are  marked  with  a  single  star  •(*).  Other  books  are 
mentioned  as  suggestions  to  those  who  may  wish  to  make  more  detailed  study  under 
any  head. 


8  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

*Mill,  General  Geography.     Macmillan  Geographical  Series. 

Buckle,  History  of  Civilization. 

**Shaler,  Origin  and  Nature  of  Soils.     Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  Geological 

Survey,  Washington,  D.C. 
Trotter,  The  Social  Function  of  Geography.     Fourth  Yearbook  of  the  National 

Herbart  Society,  Chicago  ;   1898. 


CHAPTER   II 

CLIMATE  AND   COMMERCE 

4.  General  Statement.  —  Climate  and  soil  are  the  most  determin- 
ing  physical  facts   which   influence  commerce.     The    relations  of 
soil  to  commerce  were  considered  in  a  general  way  in  the  preced- 
ing chapter.     A  more  detailed  account  of  climate  is  necessary  to 
understand   its    influence.      Climate  is   here  used  as  meaning  the 
combined  average  result  of  the  varied  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  as 
regards  temperature  and  moisture.     Weather,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
used  to  denote  the  purely  local  and  temporary  conditions  of  tem- 
perature and  moisture  at  any  given  place  and  time  ;  it  "  is  only  one 
phase  in  the  succession  of  phenomena  whose  completed  cycle  con- 
stitutes climate."1 

5.  Distribution  of  Temperature.  — The  distribution  of  temperature 
depends  upon  (i)  latitude,  or  position  in  relation  to  the  sun's  rays, 
(2)  the  relations  of  land  and  water,  and  (3)  the  topography  or  relief 
features  of  the  land  surface. 

(i)  Latitude.  —  When  the  tropical  zone  is  compared  with  the  rest 
of  the  earth's  surface,  it  is  found  that  in  this  zone  the  rays  of  sunlight 
fall  more  directly  throughout  the  year.  In  regions  where  the  sun's  rays 
are  vertical  or  nearly  so,  a  greater  number  of  rays  are  concentrated 
on  a  given  space  than  is  possible  where  they  fall  obliquely,  and  thus 
their  heat-producing  power  is  greater.  On  either  side  of  the  tropics, 
in  the  temperate  and  frigid  zones,  the  sun's  rays  fall  more  obliquely, 
and  consequently  exert  less  energy  in  heating  the  surface.  The 

1  Hann,  Handbook  of  Climatology ,  p.  I. 
9 


IO  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

apparent  change  of  the  sun's  position  in  relation  to  the  northern  and 
southern  hemispheres,  as  a  result  of  the  earth's  annual  movement  or 
revolution,  and  the  inclination  on  its  axis,  give  rise  to  variations  of 
temperature  which  are  called  seasons. 

(2)  Land  and  Water.  —  The  sun's  rays  penetrate  to  some  depth 
below  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  heat  is  diffused  more  uni- 
formly than  is  the  case  with  the  land ;  only  a  thin  'surface  layer  of 
land  is  heated.     The  land  heat  is  soon  given  off  by  radiation ;  on' 
the  other  hand,  the  water  parts  with  its  heat  more  slowly.     During 
the  day  the  layer  of  atmosphere  overlying  the  land  is  continuously 
heated  by  radiation  from  the  ground.     This  is  followed  immediately 
after  sundown  by  a  coolness  from  the  rapid  dissipation  of  the  heat 
into  the   higher  levels.    The  water  on  the   other  hand  retains  its 
heat  at  night  for  a  longer  time. 

As  a  result  of  these  conditions  the  temperature  of  the  air  over- 
lying the  sea  is  more  uniform  than  that  over  the  land.  The  water 
retains  its  heat  longer  and  parts  with  it  more  slowly,  while  the  com- 
paratively large  amount  of  evaporation  and  condensation  taking 
place  still  further  tends  to  equalize  temperature.  An  oceanic  climate 
is,  therefore,  subject  to  less  extremes  of  temperature  than  a  con- 
tinental climate. 

From  the  equatorial  zone  the  heated  water  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean  flows  toward  the  polar  regions.  This  surface  outflow  of  warm 
water  gives  rise,  under  the  prevailing  winds  of  tropical  latitudes  and 
the  relative  positions  of  the  continental  land  masses,  to  several  so-called 
ocean  currents,  as  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Japan  Current.  These  surface 
drift  currents  are  important  distributers  of  heat.  Deeper  drifts  of 
cold  water  flow  away  from  the  polar  oceans  toward  the  equatorial 
zone,  and  in  many  places  influence  the  climate  of  lands  near  which 
they  pass  as  in  the  case  of  the  Labrador  ice  current. 

(3)  Topographical  or  Relief  Features.  —  The  surface  of  highland 
regions  is  irregular.     The  rocky  and  gravelly  nature  of  the  soil,  cov- 
ered with  scant  vegetation,  allows  what  heat  is  received  to  be  quickly 


Climate  and  Commerce  1 1 

radiated.  The  evaporation  at  high  altitudes  is  also  rapid,  and  less 
moisture  is  present  in  the  atmosphere,  both  of  which  factors  add  to 
the  lowering  of  temperature. 

6.  Isotherms.  —  A  line  drawn  through  places  having  the  same 
temperature  is  known  as  an  isotherm  or  isothermal  line.  An 
isotherm  may  connect  places  having  the  same  temperatures,  either 
at  a  time  of  observation,  or  when  averaged  over  a  given  time.  The 
great  temperature  zones  of  the  earth,  characterized  by  peculiarities 
of  vegetation  and  animal  life,  are  somewhat  definitely  bounded  by 
isotherms.  The  tropical  zone  of  temperature  is  included  within  the 
annual  isotherms  of  70°  Fahrenheit,  north  and  south  of  the  equator. 
The  north  and  south  temperate  zones  lie  between  the  isotherms  of 
70°  Fahrenheit  and  the  annual  isotherms  of  32°  Fahrenheit,  marked 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  by  the  limit  of  forest  tree  growth  and 
the  beginning  of  continuously  frozen  ground.  Included  within  the 
irregular  isothermal  circles  of  32°  are  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  zones. 
The  greater  preponderance  of  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  with 
the  variety  in  its  surface  features,  and  the  character  of  the  ocean 
drifts,  cause  the  isotherms  in  that  part  of  the  earth  to  be  very  irregu- 
lar. The  isothermal  lines  and  their  included  zones  move  with  the 
apparent  annual  motion  of  the  sun.  Thus  the  midwinter  and  mid- 
summer isotherms  in  the  northern  hemisphere  bear  no  fixed  relation 
to  each  other,  but  change  with  the  changing  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture induced  by  the  influence  of  the  greater  or  less  obliquity  of  the 
sun's  rays.  For  example,  "  the  coast  of  Alaska,  the  central  United 
States,  the  lower  Lake  Region,  Newfoundland,  the  Scandinavian 
Peninsula,  Central  Russia,  Mongolia,  Korea,  and  Northern  Japan 
have  the  mean  January  temperature  of  20°,  while  in  July  the  tem- 
perature of  these  places  does  not  correspond.  For  instance,  in  July 
the  coast  of  Alaska  has  the  same  mean  temperature  as  Northern 
Siberia,  and  the  July  isotherm  of  the  central  United  States  passes 
through  Northern  Africa.  The  annual  isotherm  is  a  line  drawn  to 
represent  the  average  sum  of  the  mean  monthly  temperatures  taken 


Climate  and  Commerce  13 

from   observations    covering   a   period    of   several    years."      (Map 
opposite.) 

7.  The  Trade  Winds.  —  In  a  voyage  from  New  York  around  Cape 
Horn  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  ship,  after  getting  clear  of  the 
variable  winds  and  weather  of  the  North  Atlantic,  falls  into  a  region 
of  "calms"  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.     After 
light,  baffling  winds  she  strikes  the  steadily  blowing  "  trades  "  from 
the  northeast,  which  carry  her  over  thirty  degrees  of  latitude.     Just 
before  crossing   "the 'line"  the  "trades"  die  down,  and  she  finds 
herself  in  the  region  of  "  equatorial  calms."     Once  past  the  equa- 
torial calms,  the  ship  is  for  about  thirty  degrees  in  the  southeast 
trade  wind  zone.     Another  belt  of  calms  is  then  encountered,  and 
beyond  this  the  boisterous  "  westerlies  "  or  "  roaring  forties  "  of  the 
South  Atlantic  mark   the   rest  of  the  voyage   around  either  cape. 
During  any  month  of  the  year  a  vessel  will  encounter  these  zones  of 
wind  and  calm,  though  their  boundaries  fluctuate  over  a  few  degrees. 
This  is  true  of  any  of  the  three  great  oceans,  and,  with  certain  modi- 
fications, is  true  also  of  the  land  areas  lying  within  the  zones  above 
described.      The  constant  winds  here  noted   are    the  trade  winds, 
which  blow  in  one  direction  almost  uninterruptedly  throughout  the 
year.     The  trade  winds  have  always  played   an  important  part  in 
the  history  of  ocean-going  commerce,  especially  in  the  days  before 
the  steamship ;  even  now  their  influence  upon  steam-driven  vessels 
is  not  inconsiderable. 

8.  Periodic  Winds. — The    difference  between   the  day  and  the 
night  temperature  of  the  air  over  the  land  and  sea,  as  a  result  of  the 
unequal  heating  of  land  and  water  surfaces,  causes  winds  which  set 
toward  or  away  from  the  land.     During  the  daytime,  when  the  radi- 
ation from  the  heated  ground  makes  the  overlying  atmosphere  an 
area  of  low  atmospheric  pressure,  the  cooler  air  over  the  ocean  blows 
in  as  a  sea  breeze.     After  sundown  an  exchange  of  conditions  takes 
place.     The  air  over  the  land  becomes  quickly  cooled,  as  already 
explained,  while  that   over   the    ocean   becomes   relatively  warmer 


14  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

from  the  slow  radiation  of  the  water.  A  wind  then  sets  in  from  the 
land  toward  the  sea  known  as  a  land  breeze. 

On  a  larger  scale,  but  for  similar  reasons,  are  the  yearly  differences 
in  the  direction  of  certain  "  season  "  winds.  When  the  sun  is  to  the 
northward  in  summer  and  is  more  directly  over  the  land  of  southern 
Asia,  that  region  becomes  an  area  of  "  low  pressure,"  and  a  persistent 
movement  takes  place  from  the  cooler  air  over  the  Indian  Ocean  in 
the  form  of  a  strong  and  often  violent  wind  called  the  "  monsoon." 
When  the  sun  has  moved  south  to  a  winter  position  over  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn,  a  reversal  of  the  conditions  takes  place,  the  so-called 
"  winter  monsoon  "  blowing  for  six  months  of  the  year  in  an  opposite 
direction.  The  winter  monsoon  has  not  nearly  the  same  force  as  the 
summer  or  southwest  monsoon,  since  the  ocean  area  far  exceeds  that 
of  the  land  in  the  region  of  the  southern  tropic.  The  waters  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  shore  lands  of  southern  Asia  are  thus  swept 
by  these  monsoon  winds  for  six  months  of  the  year  in  one  direction 
and  for  the  remaining  six  months  in  the  other.  Monsoon-like  winds 
similarly  occur  on  the  coasts  of  Africa,  Australia,  and  South  America 
within  the  torrid  zone,  but  are  not  marked  by  such  force  and  regu- 
larity as  are  the  monsoons  of  the  Indian  region.  The  monsoon  is 
taken  advantage  of  by  vessels  making  the  voyage  through  the  Indian 
Ocean;  but  during  the  time  of  the  changes,  in  April  and  October, 
known  as  the  "  bursting  of  the  monsoon,"  violent  gales  and  storms 
are  prevalent. 

9.  Rainfall. — The  distribution  of  rainfall  is  determined  by  the 
relative  positions  of  land  and  sea,  by  topographical  features  (as 
mountain  ranges),  and  by  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds. 
The  heaviest  rainfall  on  the  earth  is  in  the  region  of  the  Bay  of  Ben- 
gal, where  the  total  amounts  to  more  than  five  hundred  inches 
annually. 

Rainless  regions,  such,  for  example,  as  Upper  Egypt,  Arabia,  the 
Desert  of  Gobi,  and  the  Desert  of  Atacama  in  Peru,  are  the  result 
of  an  intensely  heated  atmosphere  which  absorbs  the  moisture 


Climate  and  Commerce  15 

present,  or  of  dry  winds,  deprived  of  their  moisture  in  crossing  high- 
lands. In  the  United  States  the  amount  of  rainfall  over  different 
portions  is  largely  governed  by  the  movements  of  cyclonic  storms 
across  the  country  from  west  to  east.  As  shown  by  the  map 
on  p.  1 6,  the  heaviest  rainfall  occurs  on  the  Pacific  coast  north  of 
San  Francisco,  since  the  moist  winds  from  the  ocean  are  forced  to 
rise  in  striking  against  the  high  coast  ranges,  and  a  copious  precipi- 
tation results.  The  same  currents  after  passing  the  crest  of  the 
range  will  blow  as  dry  winds ;  hence  the  light  rainfall  of  the  Great 
Plains.  The  effect  of  a  great  highland  mass,  like  the  Plateau  Region  of 
the  western  United  States,  is  felt  for  a  considerable  distance  eastward  ; 
because  of  this  the  rainfall  is  lighter  throughout  the  Lake  Region 
and  the  states  immediately  west  of  the  Mississippi  (extending  to  the 
Gulf  coast  of  Texas)  than  in  the  more  eastern  portion  of  the  coun- 
try. The  lower  Mississippi  Valley,  the  Gulf  coast,  and  the  entire 
Atlantic  seaboard,  on  the  other  hand,  enjoy  a  much  more  abundant 
rainfall  from  the  proximity  of  the  ocean  and  also  from  the  fact  that 
many  storms  sweep  northeastward  from  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  On  the  Atlantic  coast  the  rain- 
fall diminishes  from  Florida  northward;  on  the  Pacific  coast  it 
diminishes  from  Washington  southward. 

10.  Irrigation.  —  In  regions  of  deficient  rainfall,  or  where  the  sea- 
sonal distribution  of  rain  is  irregular,  it  becomes  necessary  to  resort 
to  irrigation  to  insure  a  sufficient  crop  return.  Water  for  irrigation  is 
secured  by  impounding  river  water  in  a  reservoir,  or  by  storage  of  rain 
or  well  water  in  tanks.  Water  is  also  sometimes  used  directly  from 
springs.  In  many  parts  of  the  west,  wells  have  been  sunk  and  the 
water  pumped  by  windmills  into  reservoirs  for  distribution.  In  the 
modern  improved  methods  of  irrigation  as  carried  on  in  the  arid 
regions  of  the  western  United  States,  the  water  is  brought  from  the 
reservoir,  often  a  distance  of  many  miles,  through  flumes,  pipes,  or 
cemented  ditches,  and  distributed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  crop 
to  be  irrigated.  Large  tracts  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States 


Climate  and  Commerce  \*j 

have  thus  been  reclaimed,  and  what  were  formerly  desert  wastes  are 
now  rich  agricultural  regions.  Irrigation  is  employed  in  three  sections 
of  the  western  United  States  :  (i)  that  known  as  the  Great  Plains  or 
sub-humid  region;  (2)  the  Rocky  Mountain  section;  and  (3)  the 
arid  region  proper,  which  includes  Nevada,  Arizona,  and  parts  of  the 
Pacific  States. 

Irrigation  is  one  means  of  materially  increasing  the  production  of 
the  United  States.     The  establishment  of  farms  and  homesteads  in 


ADVENT  OF  SPRING 
Northward  movement  of  the  isotherm  of  43.8  F.1 

the  arid  regions  of  the  west  opens  a  wide  field  for  future  commercial 
enterprise.  With  the  increasing  interest  in  the  subject  among 
individuals,  the  favorable  attitude  of  federal  and  state  governments, 
and  the  activity  of  the  various  irrigation  associations,  the  settlement 

1  After  Harrington,  Harper's  Magazine,  Vol.  88,  p.  874. 


i8 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


of  much  of  the  arid  area  by  an  agricultural  population,  bids  fair  to  be 
an  accomplished  fact  in  the  not  distant  future. 

11.  Temperature  Control.  —  Every  species  of  animal  and  plant 
requires  a  certain  sum  total  of  heat  in  order  to  complete  its  full 
cycle  of  growth  and  reproduction.  It  has  been  ascertained  through 
extended  observation  that  the  temperature  required  to  start  the 
dormant  activities  of  plant  life  is  42.8°  F.  The  northward  move- 
ment of  the  isotherm  of  this  temperature  (usually  taken  as  one 
degree  higher,  or  43.8°  F.)  marks  the  advent  of  spring  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  calling  into  activity  the  germinating  force 
in  seeds,  and  the  growth  and  flowering  of  vegetation.  (See  map 
on  p.  17.) 

Each  variety  of  plant  or  animal  has  a  definite  relation  to  tempera- 
ture which  is  expressed  as  its  "heat  constant."  This  is  obtained 
by  taking  the  sum  of  the  mean  normal  daily  temperatures  above 
the  initial  point  of  42.8°  F.  throughout  the  period  of  reproductive 
activity  (i.e.  the  spring  and  summer).  Thus  corn  has  a  higher 
"  heat  constant "  than  wheat ;  i.e.  it  requires  a  greater  sum  total 
of  heat  to  effect  its  growth  and  ripening.  The  life  features  of  the 
climatic  zones  (especially  the  features  of  vegetation)  are  based 

upon  the  laws  of  tem- 
perature control.  The 
distribution  of  products 
is  governed  by  the  same 
laws,  commerce  being 
thus  conditioned  by  tem- 
perature.1 

12.  Slope  Exposure.  — 
The  effects  of  increased 
temperature  on  the 


EFFECTS  OF  SLOPE  EXPOSURE  ON  VEGETATION 
(After  Merriam) 


1  C.  Hart  Merriam,  Laws  of  Temperature  Control  of  the  Geographic  Distributiqn 
of  Terrestrial  Animals  and  Plants.  National  Geographic  Magazine,  Vol.  VI,  1894, 
pp.  229-238. 


Climate  and  Commerce 


southern  slopes  of  hills  and  mountains  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
(the  conditions  being  reversed  in  the  southern  hemisphere),  is 
very  marked  in  the  character  and  development  of  the  vegetation ; 
many  species  of  plants  appear  earlier  in  the  spring  on  southern  slopes, 
and  certain  forest  trees  reach  a  higher  elevation  than  they  do  on  the 
northern  side  of  mountains.  In  the  northern  hemisphere  the  southern 
slopes  of  hills  are  favorite  locations  for  orchards,  gardens,  and  vine- 
yards, the  different  varieties  of  fruits  and  vegetables  coming  to  greater 
perfection  and  ripening  earlier  in  these  situations. 

13.    Climatic  Features  of  the  United  States.  —  The  climate  over  the 
greater  portion  of  the  United  States  is  of  continental  character.    This 


r 


STORM  TRACKS 
The  paths  followed  by  the  low-pressure  area  of  cyclonic  storms 

results  from  several  factors,  notably  from  the  vast  extent  of  land  mass 
which,  being  readily  heated  and  radiating  rapidly,  produces  extremes 
of  temperature.  Another  factor  of  importance  is  the  prevalence  of 
westerly  winds  and  the  consequent  eastward  movement  of  so-called 


2O  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

cyclonic  storms,  from  the  Plateau  Region  to  the  Atlantic.  These  storm 
movements  exert  a  powerful  influence  over  the  climate  of  the  United 
States,  causing  the  characteristic  "  changes  of  weather."  With  the  ad- 
vance of  these  storms  the  humidity  and  the  temperature  are  increased, 
and  the  barometric  pressure  is  continually  lowered  until  the  storm 
center  has  passed  a  given  locality.  Following  the  storm  are  areas  of 
high  pressure  or  anti-cyclones,  characterized  by  very  dry  air.  In  the 
winter  season  they  produce  the  clear  and  intensely  cold  spells  of 
weather  called  "  cold  waves  "  which  sweep  over  the  land,  dominating 
its  entire  climate.  In  summer,  from  increased  insolation,  they  cause 
the  dry  and  hot  sirocco-like  spells  known  as  "hot  waves."  This 
unending  succession  of  "lows"  and  "highs,"  or  cyclones  and  anti- 
cyclones, is  a  characteristic  feature  of  weather  and  climate  in  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  influenced  of  course 
by  the  time  of  year.  Cyclonic  storms  seem  to  be  the  result  of  local 
eddies  of  low  pressure  developed  in  the  currents  of  the  westerly 
winds  as  they  cross  the  highlands  and  ranges  of  the  Plateau  Region. 
Another  class  of  cyclonic  storms  are  the  tropical  cyclones  or  West 
India  hurricanes,  a  system  of  revolving  winds  accompanied  by  heavy 
rains  around  a  low  pressure  area  that  moves  northward  along  the 
eastern  seaboard  from  the  tropical  latitudes  of  the  ocean.  These 
dangerous  gales  cause  much  destruction  of  life  and  property  on  land 
and  sea  (p.  202).  On  the  Pacific  Slope  the  climate  is  much  more 
equable  from  the  proximity  of  the  ocean  and  the  prevalence  of  the 
westerly  winds,  which  bring  in  an  abundance  of  warm,  moist  air. 

South  of  the  Lake  Region,  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States 
is  warmer  and  moister  than  the  western  half  of  the  continent,  merg* 
ing  into  a  semi-tropical  climate  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This 
forms  the  "humid  province"  —  the  great  area  of  crop  production. 
West  of  about  the  one  hundredth  meridian,  the  rainfall  materially 
decreases  and  an  "  arid  province  "  prevails,  reaching  to  the  western 
border  of  the  Plateau  Region. 

14.   Weather  and  Commerce — The  influence  of  weather  conditions 


Climate  and  Commerce  21 

upon  commerce  is  of  such  vast  moment  that  it  forms  an  impor- 
tant subject  of  investigation  by  an  accurately  trained  corps  of  scien- 
tists in  a  special  department  of  governmental  work.  The  Weather 
Bureau  is  a  leading  feature  of  the  government  of  nearly  every  civilized 
country.  Agriculture,  the  basis  of  material  prosperity,  is  a  delicate 
index  of  atmospheric  conditions.  A  disastrous  flood,  a  season  of 
drought,  a  killing  frost,  or  a  series  of  heavy  storms  of  wind  and  rain, 
if  sufficiently  widespread,  may  so  far  throw  the  productive  machinery 
out  of  gear,  through  the  destruction  and  failure  of  important  crops, 
that  serious  financial  disturbances  result,  the  effects  of  which  may 
reach  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

The  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  issues  climate  and  crop  bulletins  and  a 
Monthly  Weather  Review ;  besides  these  are  the  daily  maps,  weather 
reports,  and  forecasts,  which  are  circulated  throughout  the  country. 
Weather  conditions  are  reported  to  headquarters  at  Washington, 
D.C.j  by  the  local  observers  at  stations  in  every  part  of  the  United 
States.  The  data  thus  received  form  the  basis  of  the  weather  fore- 
casts issued  daily.  So  important  is  this  information  that  the  weather 
report  has  precedence  over  other  messages  sent  by  telegraph. 
Special  warnings  are  issued  relative  to  killing  frosts  and  to  the  probable 
movement  of  the  "frost  line,"  based  on  a  long  series  of  observations. 
These  cold  wave,  frost  and  storm  predictions  are  of  untold  value  in 
the*  case  of  the  less  hardy  fruits  and  market  vegetables,  and  in  the 
planting,  sowing,  and  caring  for  crops.  The  rural  free-mail  delivery 
is  now  utilized  for  a  wide  distribution  of  the  weather  forecasts 
throughout  agricultural  districts.  Shipping,  both  upon  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  seaboard,  is  protected  by  the  weather  forecasts.  Reports 
of  observations  are  now  made  to  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
from  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  Azores,  the  Bermudas,  Mexico, 
and  South  America.  Storms  are  thus  located  long  in  advance  of 
their  arrival.  "  Storm  signals "  are  displayed  and  are  a  sign  for 
shipping  to  seek  the  shelter  of  some  protecting  harbor.  Similarly, 


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Climate  and  Commerce  23 

the  weather  forecast  gives  the  probable  weather  condition  for  the 
transatlantic  steamships  about  to  sail.  (Weather  and  Storm  Signals 
opposite.)  As  an  illustration  of  the  close  relations  that  exist  between 
the  weather  and  trade  conditions  in  general,  the  observations  of 
a  recent  writer1  covering  the  period  of  a  year,  from  June,  1901, 
to  June,  1902,  are  of  especial  value.  While  the  weather  conditions 
change  from  year  to  year,  the  dependence  upon  them  does  not 
vary. 

Unusually  cool  weather  and  rains  of  the  early  summer  in  the  year 
above  mentioned,  retarded  crop  growth  and  raised  the  price  of  grain 
and  cotton.  Umbrellas,  storm  clothing,  and  foot  wear  were  in  "  ex- 
ceptional demand."  With  the  increased  production  due  to  the  later 
warm  weather  there  was  a  corresponding  fall  in  the  price  of  dairy 
and  garden  produce.  The  onset  of  an  intensely  hot  spell  and  a  long 
period  of  drought  in  midsummer  did  damage  to  the  grain  crops  and 
brought  results  in  advanced  prices.  Another  general  result  of  the 
intense  heat  was  to  paralyze  trade  by  its  effect  upon  the  people.  The 
markets  for  fresh  and  perishable  goods,  involving  the  meat,  dairy, 
fruit,  and  market-garden  produce,  likewise  received  a  setback,  and 
prices  were  raised  owing  to  scarcity  of  supply,  but  at  the  same  time 
the  demand  for  canned  goods  increased  and  caused  a  strong  advance 
in  prices.  The  shortage  of  pasture  in  the  southwest,  incident  to  the 
drought,  caused  "  record-breaking  shipments  "  of  live  stock  to  the 
yards  at  Kansas  City.  This  affected  prices  by  enabling  buyers  to 
dictate  their  own  terms  and  complicated  the  hide  market  and  the 
tanning  industry.  These  facts  indicate  a  remarkable  dependence  of 
the  various  aspects  of  commercial  activity  upon  the  weather.  Any 
set  of  similar  observations  would  show  a  correspondence  of  change 
of  prices  following  a  change  in  the  weather.  So  well  recognized  is 
this  principle,  that  those  who  speculate  on  "futures"  in  vegetable 
products  (and  to  a  less  degree  in  animal  and  mineral  products,  railway 

1  Robert  DeC.  Ward,  A  Year  of  Weather  and  Trade  in  the  United  States.  Popu- 
lar Science  Monthly ;  September,  1902. 


24  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

stocks,  bonds,  etc.)  make  a  study  of  the  weather  as  a  basis  of  their 
operations. 

15.  Comparison  of  Different  Regions. — In  the  tropical  zone  con- 
tinuous high  temperature  and  the  great  amount  of  moisture  produce 
a  rank  vegetation  of  wonderful  variety  and  luxuriance.  The  soil  of 
tropical  forests  is  rich  in  all  the  elements  of  plant  food,  and  little 
effort  in  cultivation  is  needed.  Contrasted  with  this  are  the  lands 
of  the  temperate  zone  where  much  lower  yearly  temperatures  pre- 
vail and  where  moisture  is  less  abundantly  distributed.  Here  the 
changes  of  season  check  the  growth  of  plant  life  for  a  part  of  the 
year,  and  here,  too,  the  soil  is  not  extensively  enriched  by  vegetable 
mold.  The  almost  unlimited  capacity  for  production  in  the  tropics  is 
offset  by  the  effects  of  the  hot  and  humid  climate  on  the  bodily  activ- 
ities. The  indolent  native  gathers  his  fruits  and  food  plants  with 
comparative  ease.  The  white  man  as  he  enters  the  tropics  is  at  a 
disadvantage.  Unacclimated  and  unaccustomed  to  the  native's  indo- 
lent ways,  he  is  in  danger  of  finding  the  climate  his  master.  Labor 
is  cheap  and  production  practically  unlimited,  but  life  in  the  tropics 
for  the  white  man  is  not  the  life  he  leads  in  the  temperate  zone.  At 
home  he  has  to  work  to  make  the  soil  yield  its  increase.  The  climate 
braces  him  to  effort.  Industry,  invention,  and  progress  follow.  In 
tropical  lands  he  cannot  do  the  work  himself,  but  is  forced  to 
employ  native  labor.  He  may  bring  his  inventions  into  the  tropics, 
but  the  native  must  do  the  actual  work.  It  is  a  question  of  becom- 
ing acclimated  (a  long  and  often  disastrous  affair  to  a  people  nurtured 
in  the  temperate  zone)  before  the  harvest  of  the  tropics  can  be 
gathered  with  his  own  hands.  Some  peoples,  like  the  Latin  races 
in  South  America,  have  intermarried  with  the  natives  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  greater  part  of  the  population  is  of  mixed  blood. 
This  is  meeting  the  tropical  environment  half-way.  But  this  mixing 
of  races  is  repugnant  to  the  Anglo-Saxon's  ideals  and  standards. 

The  far  northern  lands  repress  human  effort  and  advancement  more 
than  do  the  tropics,  for  they  withhold  all  but  the  barest  necessities 


Climate  and  Commerce  25 

for  existence.  With  the  Eskimo,  the  peoples  of  northern  Siberia, 
and  the  fishing  peoples  of  Labrador  and  the  northern  states  of 
Europe,  the  struggle  is  too  severe,  and  life  is  practically  stifled 
by  its  environment.  The  tropics  lavish  their  products  upon  man, 
but  lower  his  bodily  energies  and  thus  discourage  effort.  The  tem- 
perate zone  supplies  the  golden  mean  for  labor,  —  the  winning  of 
the  land  against  odds,  and  the  stimulus  for  advancement. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

7.  What  conditions  does  Paul  Bourget's  characterization  of  an  American  city, 
"no  climate,  only  samples  of  weather,"  best   suit?     John   Burroughs  {Winter 
Sunshine}  says   that    England   has   an   atmosphere  but  no  climate,  the  North 
Atlantic  coast  of  the   United   States    a   climate  but  no  atmosphere,  while  the 
region  south  of  the  Potomac  has  an  atmosphere  as  well  as  a  climate.     Discuss 
these  statements. 

8.  Name  places  situated  under  the  equator  that  have  productions  of  the 
semi-tropical  and  temperate  regions.      Contrast  the  temperature  of   mountain 
peaks   and  table-lands,  and   valleys   of  the    same   altitude.     How   account  for 
the  differences? 

9.  Contrast  a  "continental  climate  "with  an  "island  climate."     How  may 
climate  retard  the  progress  of  a  given  region? 

10.  In  what  regions  of  the  world  do  the  isotherms  and  parallels  correspond 
most  closely?    In  what  regions  do  they  differ  the  most?    What  does  this  indicate? 
(See  map,  p.  12.) 

11.  Discuss  the  following:   The  sea  is  a  "wide  common"  or  "great  highway" 
over  which  men  pass  in  every  direction,  but  on  which  are  certain  "well-worn 
paths  "  termed  "  trade  routes."     (Mahan,  Sea  Power.}     See  the  etymology  of 
"trade";   apply  the  root  meaning  to  winds,  to  an  industrial  occupation,  and  to 
exchange. 

12.  What  are  the  relations  of  "sea  breeze"  and  "land  breeze"  to  sunrise 
and  sunset?     Why?     Apply  the  same  principle  to  the  seasonal  winds. 

13.  Name  regions  of  the  world  that  suffer  from  (a)  an  excessive,  and  (£)  a 
deficient  rainfall.     Describe  the  causes  in  each  case,  and  the  results  as  affecting 
commerce. 

14.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "low  pressure  "  or  "  high  pressure  "  as  applied  to 
atmospheric  conditions  ?     Define  "  isobar."     What  may  be  expected  about  the 
direction  of  winds  in  areas  of  low  and  high   pressure? 

15.  How  does  the  term  "ocean  drift"  differ  from  Gulf  Stream   or   Japan 


26  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Current?  Does  Professor  Gannett  prove  his  point,  that  the  western  coast  of 
Europe  is  not  largely  influenced  by  the  Gulf  Stream  or  western  North  America  by 
the  Japan  Current  ?  ("  Errors  in  Geography,"  Bulletin  of  American  Geographical 
Society,  July,  1901.) 

1 6.  Secure  a  Weather  Map  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture.     Locate  the 
places  at  which  observations  are  made,  also  the  point  where  your  forecast  maps 
are  printed.     Trace  the  information  from  the  observation  until  it  is  issued  as  a 
forecast. 

17.  The  April  Crop  Bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  quite  accu- 
rately forecasted  the  yield  of  winter  wheat  in  sixteen  out  of  the  past  twenty  years 
(1903).     What  effect  does  an  approaching  forecast  have  on  the  produce  exchange? 
Under  what  conditions  will  a  forecast  lead  to  a  rising,  and  to  a  falling  market? 
How  are  railroad  stocks  affected  by  weather  conditions?     Find  out  the  facts 
about  speculators  being  weather  forecasters. 

18.  "A  deep  depression  is  moving  up  the  Atlantic  seaboard  from  the  Gulf." 
Upon  what   evidence  is  such   a   statement   from  the  Weather  Bureau  based? 
What  weather  is  likely  to  follow?     Would  storm  signals  be  raised? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**United  States  Weather  Bureau,  Annual  and  Monthly  Reports. 

Reclus,  The  Ocean,  Atmosphere,  and  Life. 

**Dickson,  The  International  Geography;  Chapter  VII,    The  Atmosphere  and 

Climate. 

Chapters  on  Climate  in  the  leading  text-books  on  Physical  Geography. 
** Waldo,  Meteorology.     American  Book  Company. 
Hann,  Handbook  of  Climatology,  Part  I,  General  Climatology.     Translated  by 

Ward.     Macmillan  Co.;    1903. 
*  Russell,  Meteorology.     Macmillan  Co. 
*Henry,  Amplification  of  Weather  Forecasts,  and  other  papers  relating  to  climate, 

Yearbook  of  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1900. 
Smythe,  The  Conquest  of  Arid  America. 
**Ward,  A  Year  of  Weather  and  Trade.    Popular  Science  Monthly;  September, 

1902;   also  Exercises  in  Meteorology.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Irrigation  Papers,  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
King,  Irrigation  and  Drainage.     New  York,  Macmillan  Co.;    1899. 
**  United  States  Hydrographic  Bureau,  Monthly  Pilot  Charts  of  the  North  Atlantic 

and  North  Pacific. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE  FOREST 

16.  The  Forest — The  vast  area  of  leafage  and  rootage  presented 
by  a  forest  is  a  most  important  factor  in  regulating  the  increase  of 
atmospheric  moisture.  The  roots  of  trees  are  continually  drawing 
up  water  from  the  soil  and  passing  it  through  their  trunks  and 
branches  to  the  leaves  which  return  it  to  the  air  in  the  form  of 
vapor.  By  this  circulation  of  water  through  its  tissues,  from  root  to 
leaf,  the  tree  performs  its  life  functions,  forming  the  various  products 
which  it  needs  in  its  growth  and  distributing  them  throughout  its 
parts.  Not  only  is  the  tree  utilizing  this  phase  of  the  circulation 
of  water  to  its  own  ends,  but  it  serves  also  a  far-reaching  purpose 
in  the  economy  of  nature  as  a  check  on  the  too  rapid  evaporation 
of  water.  Much  of  the  rainfall  over  a  forest  area  is  thus  returned  to 
the  atmosphere  through  the  tissues  of  trees,  the  water  vapor  being 
slowly  liberated  by  the  process  of  transpiration  from  the  leaves. 

Such  an  assemblage  of  leaves  exerts  a  cooling  effect  on  the  air 
immediately  in  contact,  and  causes  a  lowering  of  temperature  by  the 
evaporation  of  water.  The  shade  cast  by  the  forest  is  likewise  an 
important  element  in  protecting  the  ground  from  the  drying  effects 
of  uninterrupted  sunlight ;  a  considerable  amount  of  water  is  held  in 
the  soil  among  the  network  of  roots.  The  forest  is  thus  a  steady 
source  of  supply  to  the  many  springs  which  feed  a  river  basin.  The 
forest  further  protects  the  ground  from  the  effects  of  heavy  down- 
pours of  rain  which  otherwise  would  tear  away  and  remove  masses 
of  soil.  The  soil  of  the  forest  floor  is  a  rich  humus  or  vegetable 
mold,  formed  by  the  slow  decay  of  fallen  tree  trunks,  dead  leaves, 

27 


28  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

and  rotting  undergrowth ;  this  continually  works  downward  into  the 
deeper  layers  of  subsoil.  Snow  lies  longer  in  the  forest  than  it  does 
on  the  open  ground,  and  protects  the  ground  from  the  effects  of  frost 
for  a  much  longer  time.  In  melting  slowly  it  percolates  downward 
through  the  softened  soil,  making  an  additional  supply  to  the  waters 
of  springs  and  rivers. 

17.   Economic  Effects  of  the  Forest When  the  forests  are   cut 

down,  delicate  adjustments  in  the  balance  of  nature  are  destroyed, 
and  the  effects  are  obvious.  The  soil  is  exposed  to  the  disintegrating 
action  of  the  atmosphere.  In  summer  it  is  baked  to  dryness  ;  in 
winter  it  .rapidly  loses  heat  by  radiation.  In  colder  regions  the 
loosening  effects  of  frost  are  readily  seen  in  an  exposed  soil.  In  a 
region  denuded  of  trees  the  supply  of  springs  becomes  intermittent, 
no  longer  fed  from  the  constant  and  unfailing  reservoir  of  the  forest 
soil.  The  heavy  dash  of  rains  washes  away  the  loose  earth,  carrying 
it  into  the  streams,  which  become  turbid  torrents.  In  the  spring, 
when  the  ground  is  still  hard  from  frost,  the  rainfall  and  the  rapidly 
melting  snow  run  off  the  slopes,  leaving  only  a  small  part  to  sink  into 
the  ground.  This  immediately  swells  the  brooks  and  tributaries  of 
a  river  basin  beyond  their  carrying  capacity,  causing  freshets  which 
tear  away  the  banks  and  obstruct  the  channels  at  various  points,  with 
accumulations  of  stone  and  other  debris.  The  overfull  brooks,  dis- 
charging into  the  larger  tributaries,  raise  the  waters  of  the  rivers 
into  mighty  torrents  that  sweep  seaward,  often  causing  disastrous 
floods  in  the  lower  valleys.  Almost  as  quickly  as  they  rise  the  rivers 
fall  again,  and  should  a  prolonged  period  of  dry  weather  follow,  they 
will  shrink  away  into  their  deeper  channels,  leaving  the  side  shoals 
exposed  as  mud  flats.  The  brooks  become  dry  beds,  no  longer  fed 
through  springs  nursed  by  the  bountiful  supply  of  a  forest  region. 
This  is  but  one  phase  of  the  results  of  the  cutting  down  of  a  forest. 
Less  obvious  are  the  effects  on  temperature  and  the  general  humidity 
of  the  atmosphere,  which,  though  small  at  first,  must  in  the  long  run, 
and  over  wide  areas  denuded  of  forest,  produce  marked  changes  of 


The  Forest  29 

climate.  The  presence  of  the  forest  tends  to  equalize  climatic  con- 
ditions, and  its  removal  must  result  in  producing  greater  extremes. 

In  primitive  times  the  forest  was  at  once  man's  shelter  and  his 
source  of  food  supply.  The  fruits,  berries,  and  roots  on  which  he 
lived  grew  in  the  forest.  Many  of  the  animals  that  he  sought  for 
food,  or  for  the  skins  to  make  his  raiment,  were  forest  dwellers  like 
himself.  In  tropical  regions  the  leaves  and  bark  of  certain  trees  have 
always  been  used  for  clothing. 

Man  has  cut  down  the  forests  for  two  purposes.  First,  to  clear  the 
ground  for  agriculture,  —  the  forest  region  affording  a  rich  soil  for 
growing  crops ;  second,  to  utilize  the  wood  of  the  forest  trees  for 
building  and  for  various  other  purposes. 

In  modern  civilized  life  the  products  of  the  forest,  both  tropical 
and  temperate,  contribute  an  enormous  share  to  man's  welfare  and 
progress.  The  manifold  uses  of  woods,  gums,  resins,  juices,  roots, 
leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits,  —  all  yielding  materials  useful  for  food  or 
in  the  arts,  —  these  are  familiar  facts.  In  the  temperate  zone  the 
chief  uses  of  the  forests  are  the  wood  for  lumber  and  the  bark  for 
tanning.  This,  with  the  reckless  clearing  of  land  for  agriculture  as  it 
has  been  carried  on  in  the  past,  bids  fair  to  destroy  the  forests  of 
the  United  States  at  no  distant  day,  unless  protective  measures  are 
enforced  throughout  the  forested  states. 

18.  Forestry  as  a  Science The  study  of  the  forest  as  a  living 

organism,  the  life  of  each  individual  tree  as  a  unit  in  a  vast  assem- 
blage, and  the  best  means  of  caring  for  and  preserving  the  whole, 
is  the  modern  "science  of  forestry."  The  struggle  for  existence 
among  forest  trees ;  the.  enemies  of  trees ;  the  protection  against 
forest  fires ;  the  power  of  resistance  of  certain  species  to  various 
adverse  conditions ;  the  laws  of  tree  growth  ;  and  the  proper  age  at 
which  a  tree  should  be  felled  to  make  room  for  other  growing  trees, 
are  all  subjects  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  science  and  the  art 
of  the  forester.  The  forest  should  be  planted  if  need  be,  and  at  least 
tended  and  harvested  as  are  other  crops. 


3O  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

In  parts  of  the  United  States  the  government  has  set  apart 
large  tracts  of  land  as  forest  reserves  (see  map),  and  certain  states 
have  likewise  their  own  reserves,  and  have  appointed  corps  of 
experienced  and  intelligent  foresters.  It  is  only  by  this  means 
that  we  can  hope  to  avert  the  ultimate  destruction  of  our  forests. 
These  reserves  should  be  about  the  head  waters  of  the  large  rivers  to 
insure  against  the  destructive  floods  and  the  drying  up  of  the  springs. 

In  many  European  countries,  notably  in  Germany  and  Switzerland, 
the  forest  "  holds  "  are  of  great  importance.  In  these  countries  they 
are  objects  of  government  protection  and  sources  of  revenue;  in  the 
countries  named,  knowledge  of  the  life  and  growth  of  the  forest,  its 
practical  uses,  and  the  laws  which  govern  its  control,  form  an  impor- 
tant feature  in  education.  In  our  system  of  education  the  importance 
of  forestry  has  of  late  years  been  recognized,  and  departments  have 
been  created  for  the  scientific  teaching  of  the  subject  in  some  of 
the  larger  universities,  —  for  example,  at  Cornell  in  connection  with 
state  forest  reserves,  and  at  Yale.  Many  private  landholders  are 
taking  an  active  interest  in  developing  forests  on  their  estates,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Vanderbilt  forest  reserve  at  Biltmore,  North  Carolina. 

On  farms  the  advantage  of  reserving  a  small  portion  of  the  area 
for  wood  growth  is  obvious  when  we  come  to  consider  the  important 
uses  of  wood  in  farm  economy.  With  care  in  selecting  the  trees  for 
cutting,  the  farmer  may  keep  himself  supplied  with  posts  and  rails 
for  fencing,  seasoned  timber  for  repairing  and  building,  and  with  a 
certain  amount  of  fuel.  Furthermore,  the  surplus  may  be  sold  to 
good  advantage.  Aside  from  this  narrow  utilitarian  view,  a  woodland 
area  is  no  loss  to  the  farm,  inasmuch  as  it  preserves  the  land  and 
improves  the  quality  of  the  soil,  and  there  are  few  farms  that  do  not 
have  some  piece  of  ground  unfit  for  tillage,  though  it  would  be 
profitable  as  a  wood  lot. 

The  pasturing  of  cattle  and  sheep  in  woodlands  and  forest  reserves 
is  a  subject  of  importance,  and  one  that  is  receiving  considerable 
attention  from  both  federal  and  state  governments.  Sheep,  it  has 


!FOREST  RESERVES 

AND 

NATIONAL  PARKS 

OF 

WESTERN  UNITED  STATES 


BASED  ON  "YEARBOOK  OF  AGRICULTURE,"  1899,  AND  MUIR'S  "  NATIONAL  PARKS 


32  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

been  found,  are  "close  nibblers"  and  destroy  young  trees,  as  they 
also  lay  bare  the  soil  over  wide  areas  by  grazing  and  tramping.  After 
the  trees  reach  a  certain  height  it  is  possible  to  permit  judicious 
grazing,  especially  in  certain  kinds  of  forests. 

Tree  planting  is  a  very  important  feature  of  forestry  and  has  been 
followed  with  success  on  the  prairie  lands  of  the  Middle  West,  as 
well  as  in  other  sections  of  the  country.  The  Federal  Government 
encouraged  the  planting  of  trees  by  giving  land  on  what  were  known 
as  "  tree  claims." 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

19.  See  Professor  Gannett  in  support  of  the  theory  that  there  is  little  con- 
nection between  the  presence  of  forests  and  amount  of  rainfall.     (Bulletin   of 
American  Geographical  Society;   July,  1901.)     What  is  quite  as  important  as  the 
amount  of  rainfall? 

20.  Contrast  the  results  from  the  use  of  a  part  of  the  land  for  forest  and  the 
use  of  all  of  it  for  tillage  and  pasture.     Show  how  it  is  possible  to  get  more  from 
a  part  than  from  all.     Point  out  the  bearing  of  use  of  forests  upon  "  living  for  the 
immediate  future  or  living  for  the  more  remote  future." 

21.  Discuss  the  justice  of  the  state  exercising  the  right  of  eminent  domain  to 
preserve  forests. 

22.  How  is  the  fact  accounted  for  that  an  average  annual  rainfall  of  fifteen 
inches  in  some  regions  gives  only  grass  plains,  while  a  rainfall  of  ten  inches  or 
less  in  others,  produces  forests? 

23.  What  is  the  pioneer's  attitude  toward  the  forest?     Why?     Compare  the 
sentiment  on  the  forests  in  European  countries  and  the  United  States. 

24.  It  is  said  (1903)  that  forest  fires  destroy  over  fifty  millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  timber  annually.     What  can  you  say  under  the  head  of  results  and  remedies  ? 

25.  Write  a  short  essay  on  Forestry  as  a  Profession.     (Publications  of  Bureau 
of  Forestry  and  work  at  Cornell  and  Yale.) 

26.  Where  in  the  United  States  is  there  the  greatest  present  need  for  forest 
reserves?     Where  are  the  best  available  tracts  for  reservations?       (See  Senate 
Document,  No.  84,  57th  Congress,  ist  Session.) 

27.  Discuss  the  following  as  a  statement  of  the  world  condition  with  regard 
to  timber :  — 

"  The  price  of  timber  is  rapidly  rising,  and  the  supply  fails  to  increase  owing 
to  widespread  deforestation  in  new  countries.  Within  fifty  years  there  is  likely 


The  Forest  33 

to  be  a  timber  famine.  There  is  little  possibility  of  supplying  the  demand  from 
tropical  countries  for  two  reasons:  (i)  the  unsuitability  of  the  tropical  woods  to 
serve  as  substitutes  for  conifers  and  hard  woods;  (2)  the  rapidity  of  decay.  A 
thoroughgoing  and  widespread  reforestation  is  the  only  remedy." 


Books  to  be  Consulted 

*Gifford,  Practical  Forestry.     New  York  ;    1902. 

**Fernow,  Economics  of  Forestry.     New  York  ;    1902. 

**Pinchot,  Primer  of  Forestry.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

**Pinchot,  Progress  of  Forestry  in  the  United  States ;  Roth,  Grazing  in  the 
Forest  Reserves ;  Suggestions  to  Prospective  Forest  Students,  —  and  other 
publications  of  Bureau  of  Forestry,  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Graves,  Woodman's  Handbook.     Bureau  of  Forestry, 'Washington,  D.C.  ;    1902. 

Muir,  Our  National  Parks.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Newhall,  Fire  and  the  Forest  Reserves.     Forum  ;   March,  1902. 

Price,  Economic  Importance  of  Forestry.  Popular  Science  Monthly;  February, 
1903. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE  MAN   ELEMENT  IN  COMMERCE 

19.  Overcoming  Obstacles. — From  a  few  and  simple  primary  wants, 
such  as  the  satisfaction  of  appetite  and  instinct,  mankind  has  developed 
that  marvelous  range  of  consumption  which  commercial  activity  alone 
can  supply.  Man's  intelligence  has  been  directed  largely  to  develop- 
ing means  to  overcome  the  physiographic  barriers  to  commercial 
intercourse.  In  this  he  has  summoned  to  his  aid  the  natural  forces 
of  the  environment;  he  has  taken  advantage  of  the  easiest  routes  in 
passing  from  one  country  to  another ;  he  has  utilized  the  force  of 
the  wind  to  move  his  ships.  Water  of  streams,  lakes,  and  tides  has 
been  turned  to  account  as  a  source  of  motive  power.  The  African 
rivers,  for  example,  form  cataracts  and  rapids  where  they  flow  from 
the  shelf  of  the  continental  table-land.  These  rapids  were  long  a 
barrier  to  transportation  into  the  interior,  but  they  are  now  destined 
to  become  an  aid  in  this  direction,  through  the  utilization  of  their 
power  to  generate  electricity  for  motive  purposes.  In  the  earliest 
ages,  man  made  use  of  certain  animals  as  "  beasts  of  burden."  In 
later  years  the  forces  of  steam  and  electricity  are  used  as  a  substitute. 
Canals  have  been  cut  from  one  river  basin  to  another,  affording  easy 
highways  for  transportation.  Railroads  have  been  laid  from  shore  to 
shore  of  a  continent.  Mountain  barriers  have  been  tunneled  and 
wide  rivers  spanned.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  earth  and  the  mani- 
fold riches  of  the  forest  have  been  brought  into  requisition  for  human 
needs.  Irrigation  has  in  many  places  converted  a  desert  into  a  pro- 
ductive agricultural  region.  Many  varieties  of  plants  and  animals 
have  been  acclimatized,  and  flourish  in  regions  quite  different  from 

34 


The  Man  Element  in  Commerce 


35 


those  in  which  they  were  native.  Indian  corn  has  been  spread  by 
man  throughout  the  warm  lands  of  both  hemispheres.  The  same  is 
true  of  cotton,  rice,  sugar,  and  many  other  plants.  In  pursuing  his 
instinct  for  trade  man  has  largely  overcome  the  natural  obstacles  and 
in  this  way  exerts  a  controlling  influence  over  the  earth. 

At  the  outset  it  is  well  to  understand  that  commerce  is  only  a  result 
of  human  activity  working  under  conditions  of  the  physical  environ- 
ment. Physiographic  factors  must  always  exert  a  most  powerful 
control  over  commerce,  and  the  degree  to  which  a  people  has 
adapted  itself  to  overcome  the  physical  environment  is  an  index  of 
prosperity  and  intellectual  advancement. 

20.  Racial  Types. — The  present  racial  differences  among  men 
are  of  great  antiquity,  since  it  requires  an  enormously  long  time 


BORUAY  *  CO.,  N.t> 


for  changes  to  take  place.  The  term  "  race "  refers  to  the  pri- 
mary groups  into  which  mankind  is  divided,  as  white,  yellow,  and 
black.  Each  race  may  again  be  divided  into  branches,  each 


36  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

branch  into  stocks,  and  each  stock  into  peoples.  A  line  drawn  from 
the  North  Cape  of  Europe  southeastward  to  the  base  of  the  Pamirs, 
serves  roughly  to  indicate  the  barrier  zone  that  in  primitive  times 
separated  the  white  from  the  yellow  man,  while  the  area  of  the  black 
man  lay  wholly  south  of  the  desert  tracts  of  the  Sahara.  (Illustra- 
tion, p.  35.)  Three  distinct  types  are  recognized  among  the  European 
peoples,  —  the  Teutonic,  the  Celtic,  and  the  Mediterranean.  The 
first  includes  among  others  the  modern  Germans  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  The  Celtic  includes  the  Irish,  the  Gaelic  Scotch,  the  natives 
of  Brittany,  and  the  peoples  of  Alpine  Europe.  The  Mediterranean 
type  includes  the  Spanish,  the  Portuguese,  Italians,  and  many  of  the 
inhabitants  of  France.  Another  group  of  European  peoples  is  the 
Slavonic,  which  includes  the  modern  Russians,  the  Poles,  Servians, 
and  Bulgarians.  The  Teutonic  peoples  took  possession  of  the 
fertile  river  valleys,  driving  the  earlier  Celtic  inhabitants  into  the 
rugged  mountain  districts  where  their  descendants  are  found  to-day.1 
The  Berbers  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  in  northern  Africa,  the  natives 
of  Egypt,  the  Jewish  peoples,  the  Arabs,  and  the  Abyssinians  belong 
to  the  Semitic  stock  of  the  white  race. 

The  Asian  peoples  are  disposed  in  two  primary  groups  or  branches, 
one  including  the  Chinese,  Tibetans,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Indo-Chinese  Peninsula,  and  the  other  comprising  the  different 
tribes  and  nations  from  the  Black  Sea  and  Eastern  Russia  across 
Siberia,  Turkestan,  and  the  Mongolian  deserts  to  the  Pacific.  At 
the  ends  of  this  immense  territory  are  the  Japanese,  —  the  most  civil- 
ized of  Asian  peoples,  and  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Various  tribes  dwell 
along  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Many  are  also  roving  horsemen, 
as  the  Cossacks  and  Kirghis  of  the  Central  Asian  steppes.  Most  of 
these  nomadic  tribes  are  now  under  the  dominion  of  Russia. 

The  black  peoples  are  distributed  throughout  Africa  south  of  the 
Sahara.  They  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes  and  kingdoms,  and 
lead  a  hunting  and  fishing  life  in  the  great  forest  region,  cultivating 

l  Ripley,  Races  of  Europe,  Vol.  I,  pp.  103-130. 


The  Man  Element  in  Commerce  37 

only  patches  of  ground  about  their  villages  ;  they  raise  plantains,  maize 
and  other  food  plants  with  little  effort.  The  pastoral  tribes,  inhabit- 
ing the  grass  lands  of  East,  Central,  and  South  Africa,  possess  large 
herds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  African  peoples  are  naturally  divided  into 
three  primary  branches,  —  the  true  negroes  of  the  equatorial  forest 
region  and  the  Sudan,  the  Bantu  peoples,  including  the  pastoral  tribes 
of  the  grass  lands,  and  the  dwarf  peoples  of  the  Kongo  forest  and 
South  Africa. 

The  islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  the  vast  island  area  of 
the  Pacific,  including  Australia,  are  inhabited  by  a  race  of  people  quite 
different  among  themselves,  though  possessed  of  certain  traits  that 
indicate  a  common  origin.  Many  of  them,  like  the  aboriginal  Aus- 
tralians, are  among  the  lowest  of  mankind  ;  others,  again,  have  reached 
a  considerable  degree  of  culture,  as  the  various  Polynesian  peoples. 
The  Indian  peoples  of  America  are  probably  descendants  from  some 
primitive  Asian  stock. 

21.  Migration.  —  One  of  the  most  notable  features  in  the  opening 
of  a  new  region  and  the  establishment  of  trade  is  the  phenomenon 
of  the  migration  of  peoples.  Its  cause  lies  in  the  increase  in  popula- 
tion in  a  more  or  less  restricted  area,  and  the  consequent  cutting 
down  of  the  food  supply.  This  is  one  of  the  conditions  that  has 
from  time  to  time  forced  a  body  of  people  to  move  out  and 
seek  new  territory.  Once  on  the  move,  new  conditions  were  met 
with.  In  the  main  the  movement  has  been  always  to  the  westward. 
Wave  upon  wave  swept  on,  stopping  only  at  the  bounds  of 
the  ocean,  but  even  this  proved  no  absolute  barrier.  The  Norse- 
men reached  Greenland  and  the  shores  of  a  new  continent.  The 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century  saw  the  people  of  western  Europe  on 
those  marvelous  voyages  of  discovery.  The  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  witnessed  the  migration  of  European  peoples  across 
the  Atlantic.  The  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  saw  the  west- 
ward movement  across  the  North  American  continent  and  the  occu- 
pancy and  settlement  of  a  wilderness.  The  opening  of  the  twentieth 


38  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

century  finds  the  vanguard  of  western  migration  invading  eastern 
Asia  and  meeting  the  reverse  wave  of  Slavonic  migration,  which  has 
moved  eastward  across  Siberia.  Each  migration  has  enlarged  the 
sphere  of  commercial  activity  and  made  the  problems  of  commerce 
more  intricate.  Not  infrequently,  as  a  result  of  conditions  in  the 
new  home,  a  people  has  developed  a  commercial  instinct  formerly 
wanting. 

22.  The  Relation  between  Trading  and  Aboriginal  Peoples. — The 
history  of  mankind   is  largely  an  account  of  the  invasion  of  new 
regions,  and  the  dispossession  of  the  aboriginal  peoples  of  their  native 
soil.     The  civilized  world  of  to-day  is  face  to  face  with  this  problem 
as  the  actively  commercial   peoples  reach  out  for  wider  territory. 
How  are  the  invaders  to   treat   the  native  peoples   in  new  lands? 
Some  nations  have  in  part  solved  this  problem,  as  the  Dutch  in  Java, 
and  the  British  in  India,  but  the  results  in  most  cases  have  been  far 
from  satisfactory.     Man's  history  seems  to  bear  out  what  science  has 
shown  to  be  true  in  the  case  of  the  lower  animals,  that  the  newcomer 
thrives  at  the  expense  of  the  native  stock.     The  more  radical  the 
racial  difference,  the  more  surely  will  the  aboriginal  possessors  of  the 
soil  tend  to  diminish  and  ultimately  to  go  down  before  the  invading 
peoples.      This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
invader.     The  Latin  peoples  have  mingled  with  the  natives  in  the 
new  lands,  and  though  the  native  stock  has  been  largely  intermingled 
with  the  blood  of  the  invaders,  it  has  not  been  wiped  out  to  the  extent 
that  it  has  under  Anglo-Saxon  influence. 

A  respect  for  aboriginal  institutions  and  customs,  the  gradual 
spread  of  education,  the  recognition  of  a  people's  rights,  the  foster- 
ing of  every  trait  that  tends  toward  the  betterment  of  native  popula- 
tions, and  the  prohibition  of  all  harmful  influences,  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  policies  adopted  by  the  commercial  invaders  and 
colonizers  of  new  lands. 

23.  Occupations.  —  The  gaining  of  a  livelihood  is  the  basal  need  of 
man  in  every  stage  of  development.     In  a  primitive  society  —  such  as 


The  Man  Element  in  Commerce  39 

exists  among  savage  peoples  —  the  division  of  labor  is  presented 
in  its  simplest  terms  and  is  largely  a  matter  of  sex.  The  men  of  a 
tribe  hunt  and  fish,  and  engage  in  offensive  and  defensive  warfare, 
while  the  women  are  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  food  plants,  the 
grinding  of  seeds  and  grains  into  meal,  in  weaving,  and  the  making 
of  garments  and  utensils.  In  the  higher  stage  of  culture,  as  among 
civilized  peoples,  sex  distinction  as  to  the  kind  of  occupation  be- 
comes less  apparent.  Woman's  work  is  mainly  concerned  with  the 
household,  while  man  is  more  largely  engaged  in  the  field  of  what  are 
termed  "gainful"  pursuits. 

The  many  and  various  sorts  of  gainful  occupations  fall  in  one  of 
four  classes:  (i)  Those  that  are  purely  "extractive,"  or  concerned 
in  the  production  of  raw  materials,  as  the  agricultural,  mining,  lum- 
bering, and  fishing  industries.  (2)  The  transforming  industries  — 
the  working  up  of  the  raw  materials  into  manufactured  products 
either  by  machine  or  hand.  (3)  The  transporting  and  transferring 
industries,  which  include  the  carrying  of  products  either  by  water, 
rail,  pack-train,  or  wagon,  and  the  marketing  of  the  same. 
(4)  Those  gainful  occupations  that  are  rendered  by  individuals  for 
the  general  welfare  of  a  community,  such  as  the  professions,  police 
duty,  domestic  service,  etc.,  which  are  grouped  under  the  head  of 
personal,  domestic,  and  professional  service.  Of  these  four  groups 
the  first  and  third  are  distinctively  masculine  in  character,  the  second 
is  largely  so,  while  the  fourth,  that  of  personal  service,  includes 
pursuits  in  which  both  men  and  women  engage. 

24.  Racial  Traits.  —  To  trade  or  barter  is  a  natural  instinct.  Dif- 
ferent peoples  exhibit  different  degrees  of  commercial  aptitude.  The 
most  highly  developed  people,  those  that  have  reached  an  advanced 
state  of  civilization,  are  possessed  of  a  commercial  spirit  which  is 
highly  developed.  The  degree  of  commercial  aptitude  is  not  a  fixed 
quantity  in  any  race  or  people,  but  is  largely  a  question  of  environ- 
ment. Professor  Ross  in  a  recent  essay  says :  "  The  superiorities 
that,  at  a  given  time,  one  people  may  display  over  other  peoples,  are 


4O  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

not  necessarily  racial.  Physical  inferiorities  that  disappear  as  the 
people  are  equalized  in  diet  and  dwelling,  and  mental  inferiorities  that 
disappear  when  the  peoples  are  leveled  up  in  respect  to  culture  and 
means  of  education,  are  due  not  to  race  but  to  condition,  not  to 
blood  but  to  surroundings."1  Among  the  causes  of  race  superiority 
and  commercial  superiority  may  be  mentioned  climatic  adaptability, 
native  energy,  the  development  of  better  standards  of  living,  and  a 
sense  of  the  value  of  things. 

While  the  animal  is  largely  the  slave  of  its  environment,  man 
adapts  himself  to  surrounding  conditions,  and  shapes  his  environ- 
ment to  his  own  ends.  He,  "  alone  of  living  beings,  has  been  able  in 
large  measure  to  emancipate  himself  from  the  tyranny  of  natural 
forces." 2  Man's  intelligence  finds  its  most  effective  manifestation  in 
the  social  life.  The  interaction  of  the  physical  and  the  social  envi- 
ronments is  the  underlying  principle  of  the  human  progress  of  which 
commerce  is  an  expression.  It  is  this  view  of  the  subject  that  gives 
the  true  value  to  the  study.  We  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  fact 
that  the  central  theme  in  the  geography  of  commerce  is  the  material 
welfare  of  humanity  viewed  against  the  background  of  physiographic 
conditions. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

28.  What  are  the  principal  stages  of  social  progress?     What  is  the  character- 
istic occupation  of  each?      What  use  does  man  make  of  his  physical  environ- 
ment in  each  stage? 

29.  What  is  meant  by  "  subduing  nature  "  ?     With  progress,  does  man  become 
more  or  less  dependent  upon  his  physical  surroundings? 

30.  What  is  meant  by  passive  and  active  as  applied  to  races?     Historic  and 
non-historic? 

31.  Is  there  any  physical  law  to  explain  the  general  westerly  migrations? 

1  Edward  A.  Ross,    The  Causes  of  Race  Superiority.      Annals  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science ;  July,  1901. 

2  Scott,  An  Introduction  to  Geology. 


The  Man  Element  in  Commerce  41 

32.  Discuss  the  ethics  of  enslaving  an  aboriginal  people;   of  destroying  them 
by  war.      What  shall  be  done  with  an  aboriginal  people  that  refuses  to  become 
civilized? 

33.  Compare  the  classification  of  occupations  in  Section  23  with  that  in  the 
Twelfth  Census. 

34.  Cite  what  may  be  regarded  as  instances  of  "  racial  instincts  "  for  industry 
or  trade. 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*Tylor,  Anthropology.     International  Science  Series,  Appleton  &  Co. 

**Keane,  The  Peoples  of  the  Earth  and  the  Distribution  of  Mankind.  The  Inter- 
national Geography,  Chapter  IX. 

Trotter,  Lessons  in  the  New  Geography.     Heath  &  Co. ;  Second  Edition. 

Mackinder,  Britain  and  the  British  Seas.     Chapter  XII. ;   Appleton  &  Co. 

**Herbertson,  Afan  and  His  Work.     A.  and  C.  Black;   London. 

*Shaler,  Nature  and  Man  in  America.     New  York,  Scribners;    1891. 

Ripley,  The  Races  of  Europe.     Appleton  &  Co. 

*Lyde,  Man  on  the  Earth  and  Man  and  His  Markets.     Macmillan  Co. 

*Lawson,  American  Industrial  Problems.  Sections  on  Personal  Factors,  Cor- 
porate Factors,  and  National  Factors,  Chapters  VII  to  XIX. 


REGIONAL  MAP 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES 


0  Z|A 
P.-L-A  T  E  A_U 

IND. 


from  Greenwich       92° 


BORMAV  1  CO.,  N.  r. 


PART    II 
THE   UNITED   STATES 

CHAPTER  V 

REGIONAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES1 

25.  Physical  Regions.  —  The  entire  area  of  the  United  States  may 
be  divided  into  six  more  or  less  well  defined  regions  as  follows : 
(i)    The    Coastal  Plain   Region;    (2)   The   Appalachian   Region; 
(3)    The  Middle  Prairie  and  Lake  Region  ;   (4)  The   Great  Plains 
or  Steppe  Region';    (5)   The   Cordilleran   or  Plateau   Region,  and 
(6)  The  Pacific  Slope  Region.     The  primitive  nucleus  of  the  conti- 
nent probably  existed  in  the  region  now  embraced  by  Canada  and 
the  upper  Lake  district,  with  detached  masses  of  land  that  extended 
southward  through  the  areas  of  New  England  and  portions  of  the 
Atlantic  States.     An  isolated  mass  existed  where  is  now  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  inclosing  between  it  and  the  eastern 
land  areas  a  vast  interior  sea  from  the  sediments  of  which  the  central 
portion  of  the   continent  was   ultimately  developed.      Throughout 
these  areas  the  rocks  are  crystalline  in  character  (granites,  schists, 
etc.),  and  belong  to  an  early  period  of  geological  history. 

26.  The  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain.  —  This  characteristic  region  may 
be  said  to  begin  at  Long  Island,  extending  from  thence  southward 
as  a  widening  belt  of  country  across  southern  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware, and  the  eastern  parts  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  the  Carolinas, 

1  In  preparing  the  map  opposite,  and  the  present  account,  the  author  gratefully 
acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  Professor  Davis's  admirable  chapters  in  The  Inter- 
national Geography  (Bibliography,  p.  59). 

43 


44 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


and  Georgia,  where  it  merges  into  the  Southern  Coastal  Plain  of  the 
Gulf  States.  Its  inland  border  is  marked  by  crystalline  rocks  which 
form  the  "upland  terrace,"  where  the  Appalachian  region  begins. 
The  maritime  districts  of  the  Coastal  Plain  are  marked  by  a  fringe  of 
sand  spits  or  low  outer  beaches,  between  which  and  the  mainland,  are 
the  salt  lagoons  or  maritime  marshes.  In  the  inland-reaching  bays 
or  estuaries  are  the  oyster  beds  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  These  outer 
sand  beaches  from  Long  Island  southward  along  the  coasts  of  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  present  two  aspects  of  life,  — 
that  of  the  seaside  resorts  which  have  developed  here  and  there,  and 
the  fishing  of  a  scanty  native  population.  Along  the  shores  of  North 
Carolina  these  outer  "  banks,"  as  they  are  called,  form  the  dangerous 
capes  of  Fear,  Lookout,  and  Hatteras,  for  which  this  part  of  the  coast 
is  so  well  known.  Immediately  succeeding  the  marshes,  in  passing 
inland  from  the  coast,  are  the  "  pine  barrens,"  a  monotonous  sandy 
waste,  well  developed  in  southern  New  Jersey,  and  -forming  wide,  level 
tracts  of  sparsely  settled,  sandy  country  in  Virginia  and  the  Caro- 
linas.  These  pine  lands  in  the  South  are  an  important  source  of 

lumber,  tar,  and  turpentine.  Succeeding 
the  sandy  plains  and  pine  barrens  is  a 
fertile  country,  extending  to  the  upland 
terrace.  In  some  places,  as  in  portions 
of  New  Jersey,  the  soil  is  a  marl  or  lime- 
stone deposit.  To  the  south,  in  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas,  this  fertile  area  forms 
the  agricultural  belt  of  the  lowlands. 

A  number  of  large  and  important  cities 
are  located  on  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain, 
either  on  one  of  the  numerous  estuaries, 
or  on  the  rivers  at  the  head  of  naviga- 

ClTIES   OF  THE   FALL-LINE 

tion  where  the  streams  flow  down  from 

the  older  Appalachian  area  to  the  more  recent  deposits  of  the 
Coastal  Plain  ("upland  terrace"  and  "fall-line").  Philadelphia  is 


Regional  Geography  of  the  United  States  45 

near  the  head  of  tide-water  on  the  Delaware.  Trenton,  New  Jersey, 
is  on  the  same  river  at  the  fall-line  a  few  miles  above  Philadelphia. 
Baltimore,  Maryland,  Washington,  D.C.,  and  Richmond,  Virginia,  are 
on  river  estuaries  which  reach  in  from  Chesapeake  Bay  (a  sunken  river 
valley).  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  and  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  are 
at  the  fall-line  of  rivers  some  distance  above  tide-water.  Norfolk, 
Virginia,  Wilmington,  North  Carolina,  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  and 
Savannah,  Georgia,  are  on  the  coast 

The  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain  was  an  early  settled  portion  of  the 
country.  The  division  of  its  area  into  commonwealths  was  largely 
determined  by  the  topography  and  configuration  of  the  coasts. 
The  sunken  river  valleys  represented  by  the  present  Delaware  and 
Chesapeake  bays  led  to  settlements  at  favorable  points.  Thus, 
Philadelphia  was  located  on  the  only  bluff  that  rose  along  the  west- 
ern shore  of  the  Delaware  for  many  miles.  New  Jersey  became  a 
separate  commonwealth  because  of  the  Delaware.  The  colony  of 
Delaware  became  separated  from  Pennsylvania  largely  as  a  result  of 
its  peninsular  position.  The  Maryland  colony  was  first  settled  on  the 
peninsula  and  along  the  shores  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  gained  com- 
paratively little  territory  because  of  the  wide  inlets  that  severed  its 
population  from  the  mainland  Virginia  and  the  Carolina  colonies 
claimed  vast  tracts  of  land  to  the  westward,  for  here  the  Coastal  Plain 
becomes  very  much  broader,  and  is  uninterrupted  by  great  estuaries, 
such  as  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware,  which  extend  in  a  north  and 
south  direction  for  long  distances.  On  the  broader  part  of  the  Coastal 
Plain,  the  Virginian  became  a  tobacco  planter,  and  the  many  estuaries 
allowed  sea-going  vessels  to  load  directly  at  the  plantation  wharves. 
Hence  no  great  commercial  centers  were  early  developed. 

27.  The  Southern  Coastal  Plain.  —  This  area  is  a  continuation  of 
the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain  south  of  the  mountain  terminus ;  it  was 
formed  during  the  same  period,  under  the  same  conditions,  and  pre- 
sents similar  characteristics.  It  is  the  great  cotton-growing  region ; 
its  principal  port  is  Mobile,  Alabama,  at  the  head  of  a  tide-water 


46  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

estuary.  The  Southern  Coastal  Plain  merges  into  the  flood  plain  of 
the  Mississippi  and  is  continuous  beyond  in  the  Coastal  Plain  of 
Texas.  The  Florida  Peninsula  forms  a  peculiar  exception  to  the 
general  features  of  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  its  more  southern  por- 
tion being  a  rim  of  coral  limestone  surrounding  a  vast  wilderness 
of  swamp  and  marsh,  known  as  the  Everglades.  The  peninsula  is 
fringed  with  numerous  coral  reefs  with  shallow  lagoons  separating 
them  from  the  mainland.  The  entire  Coastal  Plain  Region  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  accumulation  of  sediments  which  have  been  slowly  uplifted 
into  a  land  area  with  a  slight  tilting  seaward. 

28.  The  Appalachian  Region. —  The  Appalachian  region  embraces 
all  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  Atlantic  and  Southern  States, 
from  the  inner  border  of  the  Coastal  Plain  to  the  western  border  of 
the  mountains,  including  the   eastern  portions  of  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
and  Tennessee.     An  outlying  mass  of  highlands   in   Missouri  and 
Arkansas  (the  Ozark  and  Ouachita  Mountains)  may  also  be  included 
in  this  region.    The  main  region  (outside  of  the  Missouri  and  Arkansas 
highlands)  is  divisible  into  two  well-defined  units  or  belts  :   (i)  The 
New  England  area  and  Piedmont  Belt,  known  as  the  Older  Appala- 
chian, and  (2)  the  Newer  Appalachian  Belt  and  the  Alleghany  Plateau. 

29.  New  England. — The  characteristic  rocks  of  the  New  England 
area  are  the  crystalline  granites,  gneisses,  and  schists,  which  represent 
the  base  of  a  very  old  land  surface,  the  overlying  domes  of  which 
have  been  entirely  removed  by  erosion.     This  worn-down  area  with 
its  exposed  rocks  is  part  of  the  original  nucleus  of  the  continent 
already  referred  to. 

The  whole  of  New  England  was  covered  by  the  ice  sheet  during 
the  glacial  period.  This  left  its  characteristics,  among  other  things, 
in  the  scattered  bowlder  drift  and  transported  rock  debris  or  "till" 
which  forms  the  loose  soil  that  is  spread  over  the  surface  and  piled 
up  here  and  there  into  rounded  hillocks  or  "  drumlins."  North 
of  the  Hudson  the  coast  of  the  continent  underwent  a  sinking 
which  submerged  a  considerable  area  of  Coastal  Plain  and  brought 


Regional  Geography  of  the  United  States  47 

the  eastern  border  of  the  Old  Appalachian  area  into  contact  with  the 
sea.  Hence  the  rugged  and  indented  character  of  the  New  England 
coast.  Its  numerous  offshore  islands  are  the  highest  parts  of  the 
sunken  land,  and  some,  as  Nantucket  and  Martha's  Vineyard,  reveal 
their  comparatively  recent  separation  from  the  mainland  by  the 
glacial  features  of  their  surfaces. 

Boston,  the  chief  city  of  New  England,  is  situated  at  the  head  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  one  of  the  numerous  deep  inlets  of  the  sunken 
shore  which  afford  good  harbors.  Portland,  Maine,  and  Portsmouth, 
New  Hampshire,  are  other  cities  which  have  developed  under  similar 
conditions.  The  exposure  of  vast  areas  of  bed  rock  and  the  nature  of 
the  soil  as  a  result  of  glacial  action  render  most  of  the  land  through- 
out New  England  unfit  for  farming  on  a  large  scale.  This  is  com- 
pensated for,  however,  by  the  ample  water  power  that  is  available  in 
the  many  streams  of  the  region.  These  streams  have  successions  of 
falls  and  rapids,  and. do  not  present  any  considerable  reaches  of  tide 
water  as  do  those  of  the  Coastal  Plain.  Many  of  the  important 
cities  of  New  England  are  situated  at  the  shelf  (fall-line)  where  the 
streams  descend  to  the  lower  level  of  the  tide-water  region.  This 
position  gives  them  the  desirable  advantage  of  power  for  manufactures 
and  deep  draught  for  commerce.  In  the  South,  which  is  generally 
contrasted  with  manufacturing  New  England,  as  an  agricultural 
region,  the  fall-line  has  in  recent  years  similarly  determined  the  loca- 
tion and  development  of  numerous  manufacturing  centers. 

30.  The  Piedmont  Belt.  —  The  Older  Appalachian  area  is  con- 
tinued southward  as  the  Piedmont  Belt,  which  lies  between  the  inner 
border  of  the  Coastal  Plain  (upland  terrace)  and  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Appalachian  ranges  proper.  Like  New  England  it  is  an  old  worn- 
down  land  surface  with  the  underlying  crystalline  rocks  exposed,  and 
represents  a  southward  extension  of  the  ancient  nucleus  of  the  con- 
tinent. Unlike  New  England,  however,  it  was  not  subjected  to 
glacial  action,  and  its  surface  represents  a  broadly  rolling  upland,  well 
covered  with  a  fertile  soil  that  has  been  formed  by  the  weathering  of 


48  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

the  crystalline  rocks  in  places.  It  may  be  said  to  begin  south  of  the 
Hudson,  extending  as  an  increasingly  broader  belt  to  Georgia. 
From  New  Jersey  southward,  the  Piedmont  Belt  is  an  agricultural 
country.  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Washington,  and  Richmond  are 
the  important  cities  situated  on  or  near  the  border  line  between  the 
Piedmont  Belt  and  the  Coastal  Plain. 

31.  The  Newer  Appalachian  Belt.  — The  ranges  of  the  Appalachians 
proper  begin  immediately  west  of  the  Piedmont  and  constitute  the 
Newer  Appalachian  Belt.     Unlike  the  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Pied- 
mont and  New  England  area,  the  rocks  of  this  region  are  stratified 
deposits  of  great  thickness.     They  form  a  long  trend  of  mountain 
ranges  with  intervening  longitudinal  valleys  of  considerable  breadth. 
One  of  these  valleys,  known  as  the  Great  Valley,  trends  along  the 
eastern  side  of  the  mountain  ranges  for  a  long  distance  north  and 
south.     It  may  be  said  to  begin  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  and  is 
continued  southward  through  Lake  Champlain  into  the  valley  of  the 
Hudson.     The  Hudson  leaves  the  Great  Valley  before  it  enters  the 
Highlands.     The  Great  Valley  continues  southward  under  various 
local    names  —  the   Kittatinny  Valley  in  New  Jersey,  the  Lebanon 
and  Lehigh  Valleys  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  the  Cumberland  Valley 
in  southern  Pennsylvania,  the  Shenandoah  Valley  in  Virginia,  and 
the  East  Tennessee  Valley.     It  is  underlaid  with  limestone  in  many 
places,  and   throughout  its   extent  is  noted  for   its  fertility,  being 
the  seat  of  numerous  agricultural  communities.     The  rivers  of  the 
Atlantic  Slope,  south  of  the  Hudson,  as  the  Delaware,  Susquehanna, 
and  Potomac,  rise  on  the  farther  side  of  the  Great  Valley  and  flow 
across  it,  having  cut  their  way  through  the  intervening  ridges. 

32.  The  Alleghany  Plateau.  — The  mountain  ranges  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands  constitute  the  Alleghany  Plateau. 
They  are  of  the  same  vast  thickness  as  the  more  eastern  mountains,  but 
are  unlike  them  in  their  topography,  being  a  maze  of  branching  spurs 
instead  of  long  trending  ridges.     The  region  is  a  dissected  plateau, 
the  even  sky  line  of  the  various  ridges  and  spurs  being  a  characteristic 


Regional  Geography  of  the  United  States  49 

feature.  The  valleys  between  are  occupied  by  the  head  streams  of 
the  Atlantic  rivers  and  those  of  the  Mississippi  Basin,  the  crest-line 
of  the  region  thus  forming  the  divide.  The  Alleghany  Plateau  is 
much  higher  toward  the  south,  its  western  side  (the  Highland  Rim) 
descending  quite  sharply  into  the  limestone  belts  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  the  former  embracing  the  famous  "  blue  grass  "  country. 
To  the  north,  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  the  plateau  becomes 
lower,  ending  somewhat  abruptly  on  the  western  side  of  the  Hudson 
in  the  Catskills  and  farther  west  in  the  Helderberg  Mountains. 

The  eastern  side  of  the  Alleghany  Plateau  along  its  entire  extent 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  presents  a  decided  wall  or  escarpment  — 
the  Alleghany  Mountain  proper  ("  Alleghany  Front  ").  Its  western 
slope  in  the  northern  portion  passes  gently  into  the  prairie  lands  of 
Ohio,  quite  different  from  the  bold  western  escarpment  of  its  southern 
portion  which  forms  the  bluffs  of  the  Highland  Rim. 

33.  Effects  of  the  Appalachian  Highland.  —  The  Appalachian  High- 
land is  still  largely  a  wilderness.  In  many  parts  the  primeval  forest 
has  been  cut  off  by  the  lumbermen,  a  strong  "  second  growth  "  taking 
its  place.  The  strata  contain  vast  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  which  have 
made  possible  the  development  of  the  mining  industry  in  many  parts 
of  the  region.  Busy  centers  of  manufacture,  as  Pittsburg  in  western 
Pennsylvania,  and  Birmingham  in  Alabama,  have  developed  incident 
to  the  coal  and  iron  of  the  region.  The  mining  operations  and  the 
manufacturing  centers  have  drawn  a  large  influx  of  foreign  labor 
(Poles,  Huns,  etc.)  into  the  population.  Outside  of  the  mining  and 
industrial  centers,  the  population  is  chiefly  of  the  "mountaineer" 
type,  scattered  communities  and  isolated  families,  dwelling  in  the 
"  back  country,"  and  often  preserving  many  of  the  traits,  customs, 
and  manners  of  speech  of  their  ancestors. 

The  Appalachian  wilderness  long  formed  a  barrier  to  the  western 
movement  of  population  from  the  settled  parts  along  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  Many  of  the  towns  throughout  the  region  began  as  frontier 
forts  for  protection  against  the  Indians.  The  Scotch-Irish  and  Ger- 


50  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

mans  were  among  the  earliest  pioneers,  clearing  and  cultivating  the 
fertile  strips  of  the  Great  Valley,  while  some,  like  Daniel  Boone, 
penetrated  into  the  wilderness  beyond  the  mountains.  The  greater 
breadth  and  height  of  the  Appalachian  Highland  in  the  south,  made 
this  portion  an  effectual  barrier  to  western  migration.  Passage  around 
the  south  of  the  highland  was  disputed  by  the  presence  of  hostile 
Indian  tribes.  In  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  the  divide  between 
the  Atlantic  rivers  and  the  Ohio  drainage  is  comparatively  low,  and 
the  valleys  of  the  Susquehanna  and  Potomac  have  always  marked 
out  natural  highways  of  travel.  A  remarkable  illustration  of  the 
effect  of  topography  on  the  movement  of  people  is  seen  in  the 
Mohawk  Valley.  A  depression  exists  in  the  northern  end  of 
the  Appalachian  uplift,  between  the  northern  terminus  of  what  is 
now  the  Alleghany  Plateau  (Catskill  and  Helderberg  Mountains) 
and  the  outlying  group  of  old  crystalline  rocks,  forming  the  present 
Adirondack  mountain  region.  Through  this  depression  the  Mo- 
hawk River  flowed  eastward  into  the  Hudson,  thus  opening  a  broad 
highway,  unobstructed  by  mountain  ridges,  between  the  Great 
Valley  and  the  Lake  Region  and  prairies.  Before  the  advent  of 
Europeans  and  for  many  years  after,  the  land  from  the  Mohawk  to 
the  Niagara  River  was  the  "  Long  House  "  of  the  Iroquois  Confed- 
eracy or  Five  Nations,  who  by  virtue  of  their  strategic  position, 
dominated  a  wide  territory,  holding  many  of  the  surrounding  tribes 
in  vassalage.  This  region  contains  numerous  glacial  lakes  and  glacial 
river  channels  which  have  further  facilitated  communication.  ("  Fin- 
ger lakes.") 

The  broad  depression  leading  from  the  Hudson  to  the  Ohio 
prairies  and  the  Lake  Region,  in  connection  with  the  sinking  of  land 
that  made  the  Hudson  an  estuary  as  far  as  the  Mohawk,  has  more 
than  anything  else,  determined  the  supremacy  of  New  York  City  as 
the  metropolis  of  America.  To  a  lesser  extent,  Philadelphia  and 
Baltimore  have  become  great  cities  from  their  proximity  to  the  lower 
portion  of  the  Appalachian  Highland. 


MARYSVILLE  (MONTANA)  GOLD  MILL 


WATER  POWER,  NIAGARA  FALLS 


Regional  Geography  of  the  United  States  51 

34.  Outliers  of  the  Appalachians.  —  A  re-appearance  of  strata  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  Appalachians  is  observed  to  the  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi in  the  Ozark  Plateau  in  Missouri,  south  of  the  Missouri  Rivei 
(composed  of  gently  inclined  strata,  ending  in  escarpments  or  cliffs 
of  moderate  elevation),  and  in  the  Ouachita  Mountains  in  Arkansas. 
These  regions  are  largely  forested  and  sparsely  settled,  the  people 
cultivating  small  farms  in  the  river  valleys.     Here  and  there  a  dome 
of  crystalline  rock  rises  through  the  strata,  as  Pilot  Knob  and  Iron 
Mountain  in  the  Ozark  country. 

35.  The  Middle  Prairies  and  Lake  Region. —  Extending  northward 
from  the  northern  bank  of  the  Ohio  and  of  the  Lower  Missouri  to 
the  borders  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Canadian  frontier,  is  a  broad 
expanse  of  open  country  known  as  the  prairies  of  the  Middle  West. 
They  embrace  the  western  part  of  Ohio,  the  whole  of  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois and  Iowa,  the  northern  portion  of  Missouri,  the  eastern  edge  of 
Nebraska  and  the  Dakotas,  and  portions  of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin. 
The  eastern  part  of  this  area  is  composed  of  the  thinned-out  strata  of 
the  Appalachians. 

Between  the  basins  of  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  is  a  bluff-like 
escarpment  of  limestone  over  which  the  Niagara  River  plunges,  form- 
ing the  famous  cataract.  This  escarpment  may  be  traced  north- 
west between  Lake  Huron  and  Georgian  Bay,  across  the  Mackinaw 
Peninsula,  and  southwest  along  the  western  side  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan to  beyond  the  Mississippi.  The  line  of  escarpment  marks  the 
inner  border  of  an  old  coastal  plain.  Masses  of  crystalline  rock  of 
the  old  land  occur  to  the  northwest  of  it  in  Minnesota  and  Wiscon- 
sin, and  a  mountainous  uplift  forms  a  rugged,  forested  district  in  the 
Michigan  Peninsula.  The  Lake  basins  occupy  depressions  in  the 
floor  of  this  coastal  plain  as  the  result  of  conditions  developed  during 
the  glacial  period.  From  the  ridge  of  this  limestone  escarpment  the 
country  slopes  gently  toward  the  south  as  the  prairies.  The  Mo- 
hawk Valley  leads  into  the  prairie  region  through  the  depression 
north  of  the  Alleghany  Plateau.  This  last  feature  shows  very  clearly 


52  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

how  accessible  the  prairies  were  to  the  early  settlers  who  followed 
this  natural  highway. 

The  soil  of  the  prairies  is  extremely  fertile  and  supports  an 
immense  population.  It  is  the  center  of  the  corn-belt  and  is  one 
of  the  richest  regions  of  the  continent.  During  the  glacial  period 
the  ice  sheet  covered  its  surface  to  the  present  banks  of  the  Ohio 
and  Missouri  rivers.  Unlike  New  England,  however,  the  glacial 
soil  or  "  till "  was  deposited  layer  upon  layer  mingled  with  silt  and 
finely  powdered  materials  which  covered  over  previous  irregularities, 
making  the  present  comparatively  even  prairie  surface,  and  forming 
a  deep,  loam  soil  of  wonderful  fertility.  The  belts l  of  low  hills 
which  occur  here  and  there  over  the  prairies  are  the  moraines  of  the 
old  glaciers.  Many  of  the  smaller  prairie  streams  rise  in  low  divides 
and  flow  into  the  nearest  lake  or  river  basin  as  determined  by  the 
slope.  The  absence  of  trees  on  the  prairies  is  a  marked  feature  of 
the  landscape,  especially  in  the  more  western  part  of  the  region. 
This  has  been  attributed  to  the  burning  off  of  the  woodland  by  the 
Indians  to  make  more  pasture  for  the  buffalo,  the  range  of  which 
extended  eastward  into  the  Appalachian  region  at  the  time  of  the 
first  settlements.  It  may  have  been  partially  due  to  this,  but  prob- 
ably also  to  the  very  fine  character  of  the  glacial  soil  which  is  not 
well  adapted  to  support  tree  growth. 

36.  Prairie  Cities. — The  rapid  peopling  of  the  prairies  resulted 
from  the  wonderful  agricultural  opportunities  which  the  region  offered. 
To-day  agricultural  interests  are  the  basis  of  the  region's  commercial 
activities.  During  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  centers  of 
population  which  began  as  scattered  settlements,  grew  into  important 
towns,  and  in  some  instances  into  great  cities.  The  ease  with  which 
railroads  could  be  built  has  added  immensely  to  the  growth  of  the 
region.  In  the  prairie  region  are  a  network  of  railroad  lines  con- 
necting the  various  towns.  Chicago — the  Prairie  Metropolis — is 
a  type  of  this  development.  Its  situation  at  the  southern  end  of 
Lake  Michigan  made  it  the  focus  of  the  region's  commerce  in  the 


54  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

beginning,  for  all  routes  to  the  northwest  passed  through  it.  Besides, 
it  is  favorably  located  for  the  Lake  traffic  of  the  entire  central  region. 
Its  importance  as  a  commercial  center  has  extended  far  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  prairies,  for  it  is  the  center  of  the  trade  in  the  food 
supply  of  millions  of  people,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 

37.  The  Great  Plains  or  Steppe  Region.  —  In  the  eastern  part 
of  the  second  tier  of  states  which  lie  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  — 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas — the  prairies  gradually  pass  into 
a  more  arid  steppe-like  region  known  as  the  Great  Plains.  The 
term  "  plains  "  is  a  misnomer  inasmuch  as  the  surface  of  the  region  is 
far  from  plain-like  in  character,  being  a  high,  rolling  country  of  very 
uneven  contour;  the  swells  of  land  often  reach  several  hundred 
feet  above  the  intervening  depressions.  The  entire  area  is  the 
result  of  an  uplift  of  strata  which  were  laid  down  in  what  was  once 
a  great  interior  sea.  The  rivers  of  the  region,  with  their  numerous 
tributary  streams,  have  cut  deeply  through  these  strata,  forming  char- 
acteristic bluff-walled  valleys.  The  plains  are  a  treeless  expanse  of 
grass  land  as  a  result  of  deficient  rainfall ;  the  only  tree  growth  is 
in  fringes  along  the  numerous  river  bottoms.  The  rivers  rise  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Cordilleran  Highland  and  flow  across  the  plains, 
for  the  most  part  into  the  Missouri-Mississippi  system.  The  plains 
reach  northward  far  beyond  the  Canadian  border.  Southward  they 
extend  into  the  plateau  country  of  northern  Texas  known  as  the 
Llano  Estacado,  or  "  Staked  Plains."  They  end  abruptly  on  the  west 
at  the  eastern  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Their  eastern 
limitation,  where  they  merge  into  the  lower  prairie  lands  of  the 
Mississippi  region,  may  for  convenience  be  taken  as  the  looth 
meridian  of  west  longitude. 

The  entire  region  shows  the  effects  of  denudation  under  arid  con- 
ditions. To  the  north  the  country  is  dissected  into  many  remarkable 
forms  of  relief  (mesas,  buttes,  etc.),  forming  the  characteristic  "Bad 
Lands."  In  Nebraska,  north  of  the  Platte  River,  are  many  low  sand 
dunes  as  the  result  of  wind  action  in  piling  up  the  loose,  finely  disin- 


Regional  Geography  of  the   United  States  55 

tegrated  soil.  In  South  Dakota,  near  the  borders  of  Wyoming,  is  an 
ancient  mountainous  region  of  exposed  crystalline  rocks  denuded  of 
their  overlying  strata.  This  island-like  district  is  known  as  the  Black 
Hills.  Being  elevated  above  the  surrounding  plains,  they  induce  a 
greater  rainfall  and  are  consequently  forest  covered.  In  this 
"island  of  crystalline  rocks"  are  many  valuable  mineral  deposits, 
and  the  Black  Hills  region  has  become  an  important  mining  center. 

Over  the  vast  expanse  of  the  Great  Plains  the  dryness  of  the 
climate  precludes  agriculture,  save  along  the  narrow  bottom  lands 
of  the  rivers,  and  where  irrigation  is  possible.  The  region  is  mainly 
given  over  to  grazing  and  stock  raising,  and  the  cattle  of  the  great 
"  ranges  "  are  shipped  by  thousands  to  the  stock  yards  of  Chicago, 
Omaha,  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis,  and  to  the  markets  of  the  eastern 
United  States  and  Europe. 

Denver,  the  city  of  the  Great  Plains,  has  developed  owing  to  its 
nearness  to  the  mountain  region,  and  its  accessibility  by  railroad  to 
the  east. 

38.  The  Cordilleran  or  Plateau  Region.  —  Under  the  general  name 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  included  a  number  of  ranges,  as  the 
Wasatch  and  Uintah  ranges  in  Utah,  the  Sawatch  range  in  Colorado, 
and  the  Teton  and  Wind  River  ranges  in  Wyoming,  the  Bitter  Root 
Mountains  in  Montana  and  Idaho,  and  numerous  other  ranges. 
In  this  western  part  the  Great  Plains  reach  a  general  elevation  of 
about  five  thousand  feet.  From  this  elevated  base,  the  eastern  range 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  proper,  rises  abruptly  to  heights  varying  from 
ten  thousand  to  fourteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  consist  of  vast  series  of  folded  strata. 
Erosion  has  in  many  places  revealed  valuable  mineral  deposits,  and 
mining  has  become  the  characteristic  industry  throughout  the  region. 
Various  mining  centers  or  "  camps "  have  sprung  up  in  relation  to 
the  rich  lodes,  as  Cripple  Creek  and  Leadville  in  Colorado,  Butte  in 
Montana,  and  others,  some  of  which  have  grown  into  important 
towns. 


$6  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Peculiar  level  areas  called  "basins"  are  found  here  and  there 
hemmed  in  among  the  ranges  where  the  stockmen  and  ranchers 
have  developed  permanent  settlements.  These  interment  basins  have 
been  produced  by  the  twisting  or  warping  of  strata,  which  has  formed 
a  trough,  somewhat  oval  in  form.  They  are  usually  covered  with  a 
thick  soil  which  is  the  accumulation  of  land  waste  from  the  surround- 
ing ridges.  Their  surface  is  covered  with  good  grass  and  clumps  of 
evergreens,  which  have  won  for  them  the  name  of  "  parks  "  in  several 
cases.  Cattle  raising  and  wheat  growing  are  here  carried  on  suc- 
cessfully, and  the  railroads  have  pushed  their  way  among  the  ridges 
to  reach  these  districts.  These  basins  are  drained  by  rivers  that 
have  cut  their  way  out  through  deep  canons  and  are,  in  some 
instances,  rapidly  denuding  the  floor  of  the  basin  itself.  The  Big 
Horn  Basin  and  the  Yellowstone  Park  in  Wyoming,  North,  Middle, 
and  South  Parks  in  Colorado,  and  the  San  Luis  Valley  on  the  borders  of 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  are  illustrations  of  these  intermont  basins. 

A  dry  elevated  region  of  considerable  extent  occurs  toward  the 
south  known  as  the  Great  Basin.  It  embraces  a  large  part  of  Utah 
and  Arizona,  the  whole  of  Nevada,  and  the  southern  portion  of  Cali- 
fornia. Many  of  the  Basin  ranges  are  devoid  of  trees  to  their  sum- 
mits, and  the  entire  region  is  covered  with  a  characteristic  growth  of 
sage  brush,  interspersed  with  various  thorny  species  of  plants,  such  as 
the  cactus  and  yuccas.  Much  of  the  surface  is  an  alkali  waste,  with 
the  remains  of  lakes  which  have  disappeared  under  the  drying  effects 
of  the  atmosphere.  In  Utah  this  region  is  the  home  of  a  large  Mor- 
mon population  which  has  converted  wide  areas  of  desert  into  produc- 
tive farm  lands  and  built  up  a  great  city  on  the  shores  of  Salt  Lake. 
In  many  parts  of  the  Basin  ranges,  rich  "lodes  "  of  gold  and  silver  have 
been  discovered  and  mining  camps  have  sprung  up,  one  of  which  — 
Virginia  City,  Nevada,  on  the  Comstock  Lode  —  developed  into  a 
mining  and  commercial  center  of  some  importance.  The  Cordilleran 
region  has  been  the  scene  of  great  volcanic  activity.  Immense 
sheets  of  lava  here  overflowed  wide  areas,  producing  characteristic 


Regional  Geography  of  the  United  States  57 

features  of  scenery.  In  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho  are  a  series 
of  great  lava  plateaus,  deeply  trenched  by  the  numerous  streams  of 
the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers  which  drain  the  region.  The  Snake 
River  has  cut  out  a  remarkable  canon  four  thousand  feet  in  depth. 
These  plateaus,  though  sparsely  covered  with  grass,  afford  extensive 
ranges  for  the  stockmen.  Spokane,  Washington,  is  the  commercial 
center  of  the  region  and  in  large  measure  owes  its  rapid  development 
to  the  water  power  of  the  falls. 

In  New  Mexjco  and  Arizona  a  desert  plateau  occurs  in  which  the 
strata  have  been  uplifted  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position  to  an  elevation- 
of  over  six  thousand  feet.  The  region  has  been  deeply  dissected  by 
river  erosion,  the  Colorado  flowing  through  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able canons  in  the  world.  Numerous  evidences  of  volcanic  action  are 
present  in  lava  sheets  and  such  extinct  volcanic  peaks  as  San  Fran- 
cisco Mountain. 

39.  The  Pacific  Slope.  —  On  the  western  edge  of  the  Cordilleran 
region,  separated  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  the  broad  stretch 
of  the  Columbia  Plateaus  on  the  north  and  the  Great  Basin  on  the 
south,  rise  the  lofty  ranges  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Moun- 
tains. Their  eastern  sides  are  steep  and  rise  into  numerous  snow- 
clad  summits  which  reach  elevations  of  from  twelve  thousand  to 
fifteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  These  slopes  feed  the 
streams  which  water  the  valleys  below.  The  ranges  are  watered  with 
the  abundant  moisture  from  the  ocean,  and  are  well  wooded,  being 
covered  with  a  magnificent  growth  of  forests,  among  which  are  the 
giant  redwood  and  sequoia.  In  this  respect  they  are  in  striking  con- 
trast to  the  less  heavily  forested  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Several  rivers  have  cut  their  way  through  the  ranges  in  their  course 
to  the  Pacific  —  the  Pitt  tributary  of  the  Sacramento  in  California, 
and  the  Columbia  and  Klamath  in  the  Cascade  Range.  The  entire 
range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  appears  as  a  huge  tilted 
block,  uplifted  along  its  eastern  side.  Several  remarkable  valleys 
are  in  this  region,  the  most  notable  being  the  Yosemite. 


58  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

To  the  west,  and  fronting  on  the  Pacific,  are  the  lower,  parallel 
Coast  Ranges,  including  between  them  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Cascade  on  the  east  the  broad,  fertile  valleys  of  California  which 
extend  northward  into  Oregon.  The  valley  floors  are  covered  deep 
with  soil  brought  down  from  the  denuded  ranges.  Evidences  of  a  local 
sinking  of  the  coast  line  are  seen  in  the  sea  cliffs  of  the  Coast  Range 
at  various  points,  and  the  few  deep  inlets,  as  the  Golden  Gate,  the 
estuary  of  the  Columbia,  and  Puget  Sound.  The  great  cities  of  the 
Pacific  coast  —  San  Francisco,  California,  Portland,  Oregon,  Tacoma 
and  Seattle,  Washington  —  are  located  on  these  sunken  river  valleys. 

The  mountain  barrier  of  the  Sierras  and  the  Cascade  Range,  the 
wide  stretches  of  Cordilleran  and  desert  ranges,  and  beyond  these 
still  the  Great  Plains,  long  isolated  the  peoples  of  the  Pacific  Slope 
from  the  life  of  the  east.  The  early  settlement  of  California  was 
Spanish,  and  for  long  the  chief  interest  in  its  civilization  was  because 
of  the  "  missions."  The  discovery  of  gold  led  to  the  rapid  increase 
of  population  by  immigration  from  the  east,  but  the  real  basis  of  pros- 
perity was  the  fertile  soil  of  the  valleys  which  determined  permanent 
settlement  by  an  agricultural  population. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

35.  Does  the  phrase  "  black  belt  "  as  applied  to  the  Southern  Coastal  Plain  refer 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil  or  to  the  large  proportion  of  negro  population  in  the 
region? 

36.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "  fall-line  "?     Enumerate  the  advantages  of  cities 
situated  on  the  fall-line  for  manufactures  and  commerce.     Is  the  conventional 
explanation  that  New  England  became  a  manufacturing  region  and  the  South 
agricultural  because  of  the  water  power  in  .New  England  true  to  the  facts? 

37.  Fanciers  tell  the  ages  of  animals  by  examining  their  teeth.     Compare  this 
with  geologists  telling  the  ages  of  mountains.     Explain  the  phrases  "  worn  to  the 
roots  "  and  "  gnawed  by  the  tooth  of  time,"  as  applied  to  mountains. 

38.  The  Appalachian  Highlands,  three  hundred  miles  in  width,  presented  a  bar- 
rier of  forest  and  mountain  "  almost  as  impassable  as  the  Alps  "  (Shaler).    Discuss 
this,  showing  its  result  on  the  settlement  of  the  interior,  fixing  of  trade  routes, 
location  of  cities,  and  present  conduct  of  trade. 


Regional  Geography  of  the  United  States  59 

39.  What  has  been  the  effect  of  the  Great  Valley  of  the  Appalachians  on  the 
distribution  of  population? 

40.  "  A  lake  is  an  inverted  island."    Apply  this  to  the  Lake  Region  of  western 
New  York.    What  do  the  "  finger  lakes  "  show  about  the  geological  history  of  the 
region? 

41.  What  was  the  effect  of  opening  the  Erie  Canal  (1825)  upon  New  York? 
Upon  Philadelphia? 

42.  Does  it  seem  probable  that  the  prairies  of  the  United  States  were  due  to 
the  annual  burning  by  the  Indians  in  order  to  get  tender  grass,  and  thus  enlarge 
the  pasture  of  the  buffalo?     (See  Shaler,  Nature  and  Man  in  America,  pp.  184- 
187.) 

43.  Note  the  presence  of  the  following  products  in  the  Middle  West :  coal, 
iron,  timber,  grain,  and  cattle.     What  have  been  the  results  of  the  Great  Lakes 
as  a  highway  connecting  the  regions  producing  these  various  products?     (See 

P-  I35-) 

44.  Compare  the  population  of  the  states  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  north  of  the 
Ohio,  and  east  of  the  Great  Plains,  with  the  combined  population  of  New  Eng- 
land and  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.     Compare  the  probable  future  of  the  two 
districts,  basing  the  comparison  on  the  resources. 

45.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  Butte,  Montana,  and  what  does  this  indi- 
cate about  the  geological  history  of  the  region? 

46.  Approximately,  what  proportion  of  the  area  of  the  United  States  lies  west 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains?     How  will  the  future  of  this  region  be  affected  by  the 
completion  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  and  the  development  of  the  lands  about  the 
Pacific? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**Davis,  The  Continent  of  North  America,  Chapter  XXXVII,  and   The  United 

States  of  America,  Chapter  XXXIX,  in  The  International  Geography. 
*Gannett,  The  United  States'™  Stanford's  Series,  1898. 
Physical  Geography  of  the  United  States  as  represented  in  the  better  class  of 

text-books. 

Tarr,  Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States,  Chapter  III.     Macmillan  Co. 
Outlines  of  Geography   with    reference    to    History  as    represented  by   Shaler, 

McMaster,  Fiske,  W7insor,  Channing  and  other  writers. 
*Shaler,  Aspects  of  the  Earth  and  Nature  and  Man  in  America. 
Powell,  Russell  et  al,  National  Geographic  Monographs.     New  York,  American 

Book  Co. 
*Lawson,  American  Industrial  Problems,  Chapters  III  to  VI,  Soil  and  Climate; 

also  Ports  and  Harbors. 


CHAPTER  VI 

RESOURCES:    MINERAL  PRODUCTS 

VARIOUS  methods  suggest  themselves  for  studying  the  products 
of  the  United  States,  but  the  scientific  method  of  classification 
and  presentation  is  here  adopted.  This  is  in  line  with  what  has 
come  to  be  known  as  economic  mineralogy,  botany,  and  zoology. 
This  method  includes  only  those  products  which  are  of  use  to 
man,  and  it  has,  moreover,  the  advantages  of  conforming  to  well- 
established  principles  of  science  that  have  become  matters  of 
common  knowledge. 

40.  Metals.  —  The  elements  may  be  classified  in  two  primary 
groups :  the  Metals  and  the  Non-metals  or  Metalloids.  The 
former  are  distinguished  by  various  physical  properties,  as  ulti- 
mate constituents  of  minerals — luster,  tenacity,  ductility,  and  malle- 
ability, and  by  their  power  to  conduct  heat  and  electricity.  Metals 
differ  widely  among  themselves  in  these  physical  properties,  but 
each  usually  possesses  some  one  property  in  a  marked  degree,  and 
it  is  this  which  makes  it  of  value  in  the  arts.  The  metals  occur 
usually  in  combination  with  some  non-metallic  element,  as  sulphur, 
for  example,  though  some  few,  like  gold  and  platinum,  occur  native, 
i.e.  uncombined  or  free.  The  metallic  compound  or  metal  as  it 
occurs  in  nature,  forms  an  ore,  though  the  term  "  ore  "  is  applied 
only  when  the  metal  can  be  profitably  extracted.  The  ores  of  the 
metals  usually  occur  as  "  veins  "  in  the  fissures  and  "  faults  "  that 
cut  through  rock  masses  of  the  earth's  crust.  These  fissures  are 
mainly  filled  with  quartz  or  other  mineral  substances  known  as  the 
"  vein-stuff,"  in  which  the  ore  occurs  as  threads  or  pockets.1 

1  Some  metals,  e.g.,  tin  and  gold  (see  pp.  69  and  71),  are  found  as  "  placer  deposits." 

60 


Resources  :  Mineral  Products  6 1 

The  metalliferous  veins  are  most  abundant  in  the  mountainous 
regions,  for  the  conditions  incident  to  mountain  building  were  also 
favorable  to  the  formation  of  metallic  ores,  and  these  regions  have 
further  been  the  scene  of  great  erosion  by  streams  and  atmos- 
pheric weathering,  whereby  the  metal-bearing  veins  have  been 
exposed  over  wide  areas.  In  the  United  States  the  Old  and  New 
Appalachian  Belts,  the  Cordilleran  or  Plateau  Region,  and  the  Lake 
Superior  hill  region  are  the  areas  of  greatest  metal  production. 

I.     METALLIC    SUBSTANCES 

41.  Iron. — As  a  workable  ore  of  commercial  value  iron  is  found  in 
four  forms  :  limonite  or  brown  hematite,  including  the  bog  ores ;  red 
hematite;  magnetite;  and  the  carbonate  called  siderite  or  spathic  iron} 
The  first  three  are  oxides  of  the  metal.  Native  iron  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence, and  does  not  enter  into  commerce.  The  sulphide  of  iron,  or 
pyrite,  is  mined  solely  for  the  sulphur  which  it  contains.  Limonite, 
though  not  the  richest  in  the  amount  of  metal  contained,  is  worked 
with  comparative  ease,  and  was  the  first  ore  mined  in  this  country. 
The  remains  of  the  old  works  are  still  to  be  seen  in  many  places 
in  the  Eastern  States,  as  open  pits  and  dump  heaps  where  the  ore 
was  dug  out  of  the  ground. 

The  commercial  aspects  of  iron  production  are  thus  set  forth  by 
Professor  Tarr :  "An  iron  ore,  in  the  present  state  of  the  iron 
industry,  must  occur  in  a  very  favorable  position  as  regards  mar- 
ket, it  must  be  of  good  quality  and  considerable  quantity,  and 
favorably  situated  for  extraction  and  smelting.  The  presence  of 
sulphur  or  phosphorus  in  an  ore  makes  it  valueless  unless  the 
quantity  is  very  slight.  Iron  is  now  so  cheap  that,  where  mining 

1  In  1901  the  production  of  iron  ore  in  the  United  States  in  long  tons  was  as  follows :  — 
Brown  hematite  .............  3,016,715 

Red  hematite 24,006,025 

Magnetite 1,813,076 

Carbonate 51,663 

—  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  p.  46. 


62 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


1877     1880 
16 


operations  are  difficult,  as,  for  instance,  where  the  mine  is  deep, 
the  vein  narrow,  gangue  abundant,  or  transportation  difficult,  it 
cannot  be  mined.  There  are  a  sufficient  number  of  good  iron 
deposits  in  this  country  to  make  selection  possible,  and  conse- 
quently many  of  the  older  mines  are  being  abandoned  because 

of  the  development 
1S  of  these  more  prof- 
itable mines.  For 
reasons  of  this  sort, 
the  New  Jersey  re- 
gion, for  instance, 
which  was  once  an 
important  iron-pro- 
ducing section,  is 
becoming  aban- 
doned; and  whereas 
only  a  few  years 
ago  there  were 
many  score  of  prof- 
itable mines  in  that 
state,  now  there  are 
very  few.  As  this 
ore  is  chiefly  mag- 
netite, and  some  of 
it  of  a  very  high 
grade,  it  is  possible 
that  the  use  of  elec- 
tricity in  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  ore1,  which  is  now  being  experimented  with,  may 
revolutionize  the  iron  industry  of  that  state. 

"  The  most  favorable  situation  of  an  iron  ore  for  profitable  ex- 
traction is  near  good  coking  coal  for  smelting  and  limestone  for  a 
flux,  as  in  the  Birmingham  district  of  Alabama ;  and  in  such  a 


THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION 

OF  PIG  IRON 
"MINERAL  INDUSTRY    1902' 


Resources :  Mineral  Products  63 

situation  even  low-grade  ores  can  be  worked  profitably.  Unless 
this  is  the  case,  iron  ore  cannot  be  extensively  mined  excepting 
under  conditions  of  great  abundance  and  economical  methods  of 
transportation,  as  in  the  Lake  Superior  district,  where  thick  and 
remarkably  uniform  beds  of  good  ore  occur  in  such  a  position  that 
water  transportation  to  the  market  is  possible.  Where  these  condi- 
tions do  not  exist,  iron  mining  is  feasible  only  on  a  small  scale  for 
the  local  market.  Thus,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  there  are  almost 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  iron,  often  of  a  high  grade,  which  are  at 
present  of  no  value  whatsoever."1 


Though  very  widely  disseminated,  the  workable  deposits  of  iron 
ore  are  remarkably  local  in  their  distribution.  The  chief  iron- 
producing  states,  named  in  order  of  their  importance,  are  (1901) 
Minnesota,  ,  Michigan,  Alabama,  and  Pennsylvania.  Of  these 
Minnesota  and  Michigan  are  in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  —  an 
ancient  mountain  area  worn  down  to  a  core  of  low  hills ;  here  the 
weathering  process  has  laid  bare  the  rich  ore  deposits.  The 
other  states  mentioned  are  in  the  Appalachian  belts.  Iron  is  also 

1  Tarr,  Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States,  pp.  7  and  119-120. 


64 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


1878    1880 


produced  in  many  other  states,  but  to  a  comparatively  limited 
extent.  A  very  striking  fact  is  the  recent  shifting  of  the  iron- 
mining  industry  from  the  northern  Appalachian  area  (New  York 
and  Pennsylvania)  to  the  Lake  Superior  and  Alabama  regions. 
This  is  due  to  the  conditions  already  noted,  —  more  productive 

deposits  and  better 
facilities  for  trans- 
portation. The 
larger  part  of  the 
Lake  Superior  ore 
is  smelted  in  Pitts- 
burg  and  vicinity, 
and  at  South  Chi- 
cago. Iron  is 
worked  extensively 
in  the  Mahoning 
Valley  district  of 
Ohio,  and  in  the 
Connellsville  region 
in  Pennsylvania  be- 
cause cokable  coal 
and  limestone  are 
accessible.  Of  the 
several  ores,  red 
hematite  is  best 
adapted  for  the  pro- 
duction of  steel,  and 
is  the  principal  ore 

mined  in  Lake  Superior  and  Alabama  districts.  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York  produce  all  four  varieties  of  the  ore,  while  Ohio  is  the 
only  state  producing  the  carbonate  (siderite)  to  any  extent. 

The  production  of  iron  ore  in  the  United  States  in  the  year  1901 
amounted  to  28,887,479  long  tons  (2240  pounds  per  ton).     In  1901 


THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION 

OF  STEEL 
"MINERAL  INDUSTRY    1902' 


Resources :  Mineral  Products 


the  total  world  production  of  pig  iron  amounted  to  upward  of 
40,000,000  metric  tons  (metric  ton  equals  2204  pounds)  and  of 
steel  more  than  31,000,000  tons,  of  which  the  United  States  pro- 
duced approximately  16,000,000  and  13,000,000  tons  of  each 
respectively,  or  nearly  40  per  cent  and  41  per  cent  of  the  world's 
product.1 

42.  Copper.  —  The  chief  sources  of  commercial  copper  are 
sulphide  ores  and  the  native  metal.  Other  metals  are  often 
found  associated  with  copper,  as  mechanical  admixtures  of  the  ore. 
Gold,  silver,  zinc,  and  lead  are  some  of  the  metals  thus  found. 
The  United  States  is  the  greatest  copper-producing  country  of 
the  world ;  the  bulk  of  the  world's  supply  is  produced  here  and 

1  Statistics  of  the  production  of  pig  iron,  in  the  period  when  the  United  States  passed 
from  being  an  unimportant  producer  to  the  foremost  place  in  production,  are  given 
below.  The  figures  are  averages  of  the  five-year  periods  in  thousands  of  tons.  London 
Commercial  Intelligence,  May  10,  1902 :  — 


COUNTRIES 

1866- 
70 

iSjI- 

75 

1876- 
80 

1881- 
85 

1886- 
90 

1891- 
95 

1896- 
1900 

1901 

United  States  .     .     . 
United  Kingdom 
Germany     .... 

1,464 
1,226 

2,248 
6,458 
i.9i3 

^£6 

2.563 
6,658 
2,142 

4,301 
8,098 

3.353 
482 

7»°79 
7.759 
4»!47 
682 

8,133 
7.245 
5,001 

11,492 
8,879 
7.326 

15,878 
7.750 
7,663 

France    
Austria  .     .     .     *     . 
Belgium      .... 

I,2OI 
223 
500 
264. 

1,250 
467 
580 
326 

1,493 
411 

5°i 

1.869 
650 
708 

1,666 

794 

768 

1,994 
975 
773 
4.63 

2,493 
1,251 
987 

•*™ 

2,362 

1.500 
i,  020 

Canada  

13 

25 

25 

35 

73 

Other 

•360 

380 

Total     

JO,533 

13,848 

14,753 

20,189 

23.659 

26.141 

35,565 

40  408 

PERCENTAGE  OF  THE  TOTAL  CONTRIBUTED   BY  THE  DIFFERENT 
COUNTRIES  AT  EACH   PERIOD 


United  States  

16.1 

17.4 

21.3 

29.9 

32.3 

United  Kingdom      .     .     . 

48.7 

46.7 

45  o 

40.1 

32-9 

27.7 

25.0 

19.2 

Germany     
Russia    

11.7 
3-° 

13.8 
2.7 

14  5 

2  8 

16.6 
2.4 

17.4 
2.9 

19.1 

4-5 

20.6 
6.2 

19.0 
77 

France    
Other                    .... 

11.4 

90 

10.  1 
IO  2 

93 
10.3 

7.0 

9.9 

7-7 

99 

7-° 

8  Q 

58 

Total                    .     . 

IOO  O 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

66 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


in  Spain  and  Chile.  Like  iron  and  other  metals,  copper  occurs 
chiefly  in  mountain  regions,  such  as  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  it  is  also 
found  in  old  mountain  areas  that  are  worn  down  to  their  core,  such 
as  New  England  and  the  Lake  Superior  district.  The  distribution 


,7K1883             1885                                           1890                                             1395                                           '1900  1£ 

01 
275 

250 
225 

200 

co 
175  § 

o 

"  * 

c 

125    ™ 
i 

100 
75* 
50 
25 

THOUSANDS  OF  METRIC  TONS 

s  ssissslSSg 

y 

"""*• 

y 

/ 

THS  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  COPPER 
"MINERAL  INDUSTRY    1902" 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

^/ 

/ 

^ 

/ 

f 

j 

-'-- 

££ 

^^ 

GERMA 

Y 

^, 

•^ir^if- 

_>tT_...._v 

SEir±£=" 

*"* 



...j£55~ 

-^*" 

YEARS 

1883  1885 


1BOO  1901 


of  the  workable  ore  is  exceedingly  local,  and  in  1901  only  two  states 
and  one  territory  were  copper-producing  on  a  large  scale,  —  Montana, 
Michigan,  and  Arizona.  Copper  minerals  of  the  Appalachian  region 
are  considerable  in  quantity,  but  of  rather  low  grade.  The  opening  up 


Resources :  Mineral  Products  67 

of  the  western  region  caused  the  Appalachian  region  to  decrease 
its  output ;  but  with  cheaper  methods  in  mining  and  easier  extrac- 
tion, this  copper  may  be  made  to  pay  if  the  demand  should  con- 
tinue to  increase.  As  in  the  case  of  iron,  the  Michigan  Peninsula 
in  the  Lake  Superior  district,  is  an  important  center  of  copper  pro- 
duction ;  much  of  the  copper  mined  there  is  native  and  there  are 
good  transportation  facilities  to  market.  The  largest  mine  in  the 
region  has  reached  a  depth  of  over  4000  feet  below  the  surface, 
with  no  sign  of  diminution  in  the  supply  of  the  metal.  The  Mon- 
tana copper  production  is  the  largest  in  the  United  States  and  is  con- 
fined chiefly  to  a  hill  in  the  town  of  Butte  and  at  the  near-by  Ana- 
conda Mine.  The  ores  here  are  chiefly  sulphides  associated  with 
silver  and  lead.  The  Arizona  mines  occur  in  several  districts, 
among  the  better  known  being  the  Copper  Queen,  Old  Dominion, 
United  Verde,  and  Arizona  Copper.  A  number  of  smaller  deposits 
are  also  worked  in  Colorado,  California,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah. 
The  total  world  production  of  copper  in  1901  amounted  to  532,000 
metric  tons,  of  which  the  United  States  produced  more  than  half. 

The  principal  uses  of  copper  are  in  the  manufacture  of  copper 
wire  for  electrical  construction,  cables,  dynamos,  etc.,  and  as  sheet- 
copper  in  the  manufacture  of  boilers  and  stills,  for  roofing  houses, 
and  sheathing  the  bottoms  of  ships.  Enormous  quantities  of  copper 
are  also  used  in  the  form  of  alloys,  such  as  the  bronzes  (alloys  of 
copper  and  tin),  brass  (alloy  of  copper  and  zinc),  and  German  silver, 

43.  Lead  and  Zinc. — These  two  metals  are  nearly  always  found 
associated,  one  or  the  other  usually  predominating.  The  principal 
ore  of  lead  is  a  sulphide  known  as  galena.  Much  of  this  ore  is  silver- 
bearing  (argentiferous) ;  it  occurs  to  a  large  extent  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region.  It  is  because  the  ore  is  argentiferous  that  the 
mining  of  lead  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  is  profitable,  it 
being  taken  out  with  the  silver  as  a  by-product.  The  same  is 
true  to  a  large  extent  in  the  case  of  copper  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, where  the  copper  frequently  occurs  in  gold  and  silver 


68  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

bearing  ores.  One  of  the  best  known  localities  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  district  is  the  silver  and  lead  bearing  lode  at  Leadville, 
Colorado.  Copper,  zinc,  and  gold  are  also  associated  in  this 
vein.  In  the  Mississippi  Valley  the  lead  ore  is  non-argentiferous 
and  is  associated  with  zinc,  occurring  in  a  vein-stuff  of  lime- 
stone. Its  abundance,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  mined, 
make  it  a  paying  product.  The  Missouri  district  is  the  center  of 
lead  production  in  this  area.  Lead  also  occurs  throughout  the 
Appalachian  region,  but  in  small,  non-argentiferous  veins  which 
hardly  pay  in  competition  with  the  central  and  western  products. 
Lead  has  a  wide  use  in  the  arts,  its  softness  making  it  especially 
adapted  for  plumbing  purposes  (lead  pipes  and  sheeting).  Its  most 
important  use  is  as  "  white  lead  "  (a  hydrated  carbonate)  in  the 
manufacture  of  paint ;  the  oxide  of  lead  also  is  used  in  this  way. 
With  a  small  addition  of  arsenic,  which  renders  it  hard,  lead  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  shot,  and  a  mixture  of  lead  and  anti- 
mony forms  the  alloy  known  as  type  metal,  used  in  the  casting  of 
type.  The  United  States  and  Spain  are  the  leading  countries  in 
the  world  in  the  production  of  lead. 

Zinc  occurs  mainly  as  the  sulphide  in  the  ore  known  as  "  blende," 
and  is  in  association  with  galena  as  already  noted.  In  the  silver- 
bearing  ores  of  the  West,  the  percentage  of  zinc  is  small ;  the  chief 
center  of  the  output  is  the  Mississippi  Valley  districts.  In  New 
Jersey  zinc  ores  of  commercial  importance  occur  as  oxides  and  sili- 
cates. In  Pennsylvania  there  is,  likewise,  a  zinc-mining  district. 
Commercial  zinc  is  known  as  "  spelter."  Zinc  finds  an  important 
place  in  the  arts  for  plumbing  and  roofing  purposes.  Alloyed 
with  copper  it  forms  brass  as  already  noted.  It  is  largely  used  in 
the  process  of  galvanizing  as  a  coating  to  iron.  "  White  metal "  is 
another  alloy  of  zinc  and  copper  which  has  a  wide  use  in  the  arts, 
being  extensively  made  into  buttons.  Still  another  alloy  with  cop- 
per forms  "gold  foil"  used  in  gilding.  Zinc  plates  are  likewise 
used  in  the  preparation  of  electric  batteries.  In  1901  the  United 


Resources:  Mineral  Products  69 

States  produced  over  25  per  cent  of  the  world's  output;  Bel- 
gium, Rhenish  Prussia  and  Silesia  furnished  the  larger  portion  of 
the  balance. 

44.  Tin.  —  The  only  important  ore  of  tin  is  tin  stone  or  cassit- 
erite,  which  occurs  in  granite  rocks  of  coarse  texture.     It  is  widely 
distributed,  but  is  only  found  in  paying  quantities  where  the  heavy 
metal  has  been  washed  from  its  granite  source  in  the  process  of 
erosion  and  weathering,  and  has  collected  in  gravel  and  sand  as  a 
placer  deposit  termed  "  stream  tin."     Tin  mines,  wherever  they 
exist,  have  been  discovered  by  tracing  these  stream  deposits  back 
to  their  source  in  some  parent  granite  or  associated  rock.     In  the 
United   States,  California,  and  the  Black  Hills  district  in  South 
Dakota,  are  regions  where  the  best  tin  mines  have  been  found. 
The  California  mine  is  the  only  one  that  so  far  has  furnished  much 
of   importance.     Other   localities  where  tin  has  been  found,  and 
mined  to  some  extent,  are  the  Shenandoah  Valley  in  Virginia,  also 
North  Carolina  and  Alabama.     Tin  is  largely  made  into  tin  plate 
(a  coating  of  tin  on  iron  to  prevent  rusting),  which  forms  the 
various  tinware  articles  of  manufacture.     Its  alloys  with  copper  — 
the  bronzes  —  have  already  been  mentioned.     Alloyed  with  anti- 
mony and  a  small  percentage  of  zinc  and  copper  it  forms  Britannia 
metal,  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  cheaper  sort  of  domestic 
utensils.    The'  world's  supply  of  tin  comes  chiefly  from  the  Straits 
Settlements  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  the  Cornwall  and  Devonshire 
mines  of  Great  Britain,  Bolivia,  and  Australia  (Tasmania).    The 
total  amounted  in  1901,  to  slightly  over  90,000  metric  tons. 

45.  Aluminium. —  Though  aluminium   is  a  very  abundant  and 
widely  distributed  element  of  the  earth's  crust,  it  never  occurs  free. 
The  chief  ore  from  which  commercial  aluminium   is  obtained  is 
cryolite.     "  Bauxite  "  (a  hydrated  oxide  of  aluminium)  occurs  in 
the  United  States,  in  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Arkansas,  and  will 
undoubtedly  be  found  in  other  localities.     More  than  23,000  tons 
of  this  ore  were  produced  in  1900.     Aluminium  possesses  remark- 


fo  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

able  lightness  of  weight  and  is  very  ductile  and  malleable.  Its 
lightness  renders  it  valuable  for  construction  purposes  where  little 
weight  without  special  strength  is  desirable,  as  in  racing  boats  and 
in  certain  instruments.  It  also  resists  the  action  of  the  atmosphere 
to  a  marked  degree.  It  has  a  wide  use  in  the  manufacture  of  fancy 
articles  and  ornamental  work.  Some  of  its  alloys  with  different 
metals,  especially  copper,  are  important. 

46.  Silver.  —  The  workable  ores  of  silver  are  mainly  sulphides, 
though  many  other  varieties  occur.  The  metal  is  also  obtained 
largely  as  a  by-product  in  the  extraction  of  other  metals,  notably 
lead  and  copper.  The  output  of  silver  in  the  United  States  is 


WORLD'S  DISTRIBUTION  OF  SILVER 

almost  entirely  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  Colorado,  Mon- 
tana, Utah,  Idaho,  and  Arizona  being  the  chief  producers  (1901). 
At  one  time  Nevada  held  first  rank  in  the  production  of  silver,  and 
millions  of  dollars  were  spent  in  exploiting  the  famous  Comstock 
Lode ;  this  created  a  city  (Virginia  City)  on  the  site  of  the  lode, 
and  raised  Nevada  to  the  rank  of  a  state.  Mismanagement,  litiga- 
tion, destructive  fires  in  the  mines,  and  costly  methods,  however, 
caused  many  of  the  operations  to  be  abandoned,  and  reduced 
Nevada  to  sixth  rank  as  a  producer  of  silver.  Lead  and  copper 
ores  as  noted  above,  are  the  chief  sources  of  silver.  The  United 
States'  product  in  1900  amounted  to  nearly  60,000,000  ounces 


Resources :  Mineral  Products 


(fine  ounce).  Silver  is  extensively  used  in  alloy  with  other  metals 
in  the  manufacture  of  fine  wares  and  in  jewelry ;  all  silverware 
is  alloyed  with  copper  in  order  to  increase  its  hardness.  The 
silver  coins  of  the  United  States  contain  ten  per  cent  of  copper. 

47.  Gold.  —  Gold  occurs  native  (i.e.  uncombined  with  other 
elements)  and  is  chiefly  found  in  veins  of  quartz  or  as  placer  gold 
in  the  gravels  and  sands  of  streams  as  a  result  of  the  weather- 
ing of  gold-bearing  (auriferous)  rocks.  It  occurs  in  these  situa- 


1875 


•19001901 


60,000,000  02, 


THE  WORLD'S 
PRODUCTION  OF  SILVER 
MINERAL  INDUSTRY    1902 


M 


60,000,000 


30,000,000  OZ. 


1 5,000,000  or. 


187.5  1880  1885  1890  1895  19001901 

tions  in  grains  and  flakes  disseminated  through  the  quartz  or  the 
gravels,  or  in  larger  pieces  called  "nuggets."  A  large  part  of  the 
gold  of  commerce,  however,  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  min- 
ing of  silver  and  copper,  and  certain  other  metals.  In  this  con- 
nection, the  gold  probably  exists  mechanically  mixed  with  the  other 
metals,  and  not  in  chemical  combination.  Native  gold  is  thus 
largely  associated  with  silver,  and  the  two  are  generally  mined 
together.  The  gold-producing  areas  of  the  United  States  are  in 
the  Appalachian  and  the  Plateau  and  Pacific  Slope  regions. 


72  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Until  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in  1848  the  southern 
Appalachians  produced  all  the  gold  of  the  country,  chiefly  from  the 
states  of  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  South  Carolina.  At  the 
present  day  the  Western  States  and  Alaska  are  the  chief  producers 
of  this  precious  metal.  Colorado  heads  the  list  (1900),  followed 
by  California,  Alaska,  Montana,  South  Dakota  (Black  Hills  district), 


$75,000,000 


$60,000,000 


$45,000,000 


$30,000,000 


$11,000,000 


THE  WORLD'S 

PRODUCTION  OF  GOLD 

MINERAL  INDUSTRY     1902 


$75,000,000 


^60, 000, 000 


$45,000,000 


$,30, 000,,  000 


$15,000,000 


1875 


and  Utah.  A  number  of  other  states  produce  smaller  amounts. 
The  United  States  output  for  1901  amounted  to  nearly  4,000,000 
ounces  (fine)  of  which  over  3,000,000  ounces  were  obtained  from 
the  quartz,  the  remainder  being  from  placer  deposits.  This  in- 
cludes the  gold  output  of  Alaska.  The  principal  placer  deposits 
are  in  California,  where  the  gold  has  been  washed  down  from  the 
Sierras  and  accumulated  in  the  gravels  of  the  slack-water  reaches 


Resources:  Mineral  Products  73 

of  rivers.  The  placer  deposits  are  now  mined  by  the  hydraulic 
process,  a  stream  of  water  being  played  with  force  upon  the  banks, 
and  the  water  and  sediment  run  into  sluices  where  the  heavy  gold 
collects  back  of  the  riffles  and  is  held  by  mercury  with  which  it  forms 
an  amalgam.  This  has  largely  done  away  with  the  process  of  wash- 
ing the  gravel  by  hand.  The  important  use  of  gold  is  as  a  basis  of 
coinage  and  in  the  manufacture  of  costly  ornamental  wares  and 
jewelry.  It  is  highly  ductile  and  malleable  and,  unlike  silver,  does 
not  tarnish.  Being  comparatively  soft,  gold  is  alloyed  with  other 
metals  to  give  it  durability ;  silver  and  copper  are  the  chief  additions. 

48.  Platinum. — This  metal  is  occasionally  found  in  the  gold- 
bearing  gravels,  but  its  production  has  little  commercial  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States ;  the  chief  supply  comes  from  Russia. 

Platinum  is  a  heavy  metal,  remarkable  for  its  ductility,  mallea- 
bility, and  high  melting  point.  It  is  alloyed  with  iridium  and  other 
metals  to  make  it  harder.  Its  chief  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
crucibles,  wire,  and  other  chemical  utensils  required  to  withstand 
a  high  degree  of  heat,  as  well  as  the  action  of  chemicals.  It  is 
used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  incandescent  electric  and 
gas  lights,  and  in  dentistry. 

49.  Mercury.  —  The  ore  from  which  mercury  or  quicksilver  is 
obtained  is  known  as  cinnabar,  and  is  found  in  the  United  States  in 
paying  quantities  only  in  California.     The  United  States  in  1900 
stood  next  to  Spain  in  the  production  of  this  metal.     Its  chief  use 
is  in  the  extraction  of  gold  and  silver  from  the  ore.     It  is  also 
used   in   the   manufacture  of   a   material  for  the  "  silvering "  of 
mirrors,    and    on    account   of    its    remaining    liquid    at    ordinary 
temperatureSj  it  is  the  substance  most  generally  employed  in  the 
construction  of  thermometers.      The  same  fact  and  its  high  spe- 
cific gravity  render   it  useful  in  the  construction   of  barometers. 
Mercury   is   also   largely   employed   in  medicine  as    calomel   and 
corrosive    sublimate,    and    in    the    form    of   ointment.     Cinnabar, 
mixed  with  other  ingredients,  is  the  basis  of  the  pigment  vermilion. 


74  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

50.  Other  Metals.  —  Manganese  is  obtained  from  several  dif- 
ferent ores.  The  largest  producing  regions  of  the  United  States 
(1901)  are  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  Its  oxides  are  mined  as  a 
by-product  in  the  silver  ores  of  Leadville,  Colorado,  and  in  the  zinc 
ores  at  Franklin  Furnace,  New  Jersey.  It  is  also  produced  in 
Georgia,  Virginia,  and  Arkansas.  Its  chief  use  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  as  allots  known  as  "  spiegeleisen,"  and  "  ferro- 
manganese."  It  is  also  used  as  a  bleacher,  as  a  drier  in  varnishes, 
in  the  manufacture  of  disinfectants,  in  calico  printing,  and  in  the 
coloring  of  glass  and  pottery. 

Ironpyrite  (sulphide  of  iron)  occurs  largely  in  the  Appalachian 
region  and  is  mined  in  various  places  solely  for  sulphur  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Chromium  occurs  chiefly  as  a  chrome  iron  ore  (chromite).  The 
metal  itself  is  used  only  as  an  alloy  with  steel,  but  in  combination 
it  forms  the  basis  of  several  yellow  and  green  pigments,  and  in 
the  form  of  the  bichromate  of  potash  is  used  in  the  printing  of 
calicoes.  "  Chrome  steel "  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  edge 
tools  and  burglar-proof  safes.  Mining  of  chrome  iron  ore  was 
formerly  almost  entirely  confined  to.  Maryland  and  southern  Penn- 
sylvania, but  California  is  now  the  only  state  that  produces  it  in 
any  quantity.  Baltimore  is  the  center  of  the  chrome  industry. 

Antimony,  obtained  from  the  ore  stibnite  (a  sulphide  of  the 
metal),  is  chiefly  used  in  alloys  to  impart  hardness  to  other  metals, 
notably  with  lead  to  form  type  metal  and  with  copper  and  tin  to 
form  pewter,  Britannia  metal,  etc.  The  sulphide  is  used  in  the 
process  of  vulcanizing  rubber ;  a  tartaric  acid  compound  of  the 
oxide,  known  as  tartar-emetic,  is  employed  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing, 
and  also  in  medicine.  Antimony  ores  are  found  in  the  United 
States,  in  California,  Idaho,  and  South  Dakota.  Germany  leads  in 
the  world's  supply  of  antimony  and  antimony  compounds  (1900). 

Nickel  and  cobalt  are  two  metals  usually  associated  in  several 
varieties  of  ore.  Cobalt  is  mainly  obtained  as  a  by-product 


Resources:  Mineral  Products  75 

in  the  extraction  of  nickel.  Though  found  in  various  localities,  the 
only  commercial  source  of  these  metals  in  the  United  States  since  the 
closing  of  the  nickel  mines  near  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  is  in  their 
extraction  as  a  by-product  in  the  mining  of  lead  at  Mine  Lamotte, 
Missouri.  The  chief  sources  of  the  world's  supply  of  nickel  are  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  France,  and  Germany.  Nickel  enters  into  the 
process  of  plating  and  as  an  alloy  in  the  formation  of  nickel  steel. 
It  is  also  used  in  the  so-called  "  German  silver,"  in  cheap  watches 
and  jewelry,  and  in  coinage  (five-cent  piece).  Cobalt  as  an  oxide,  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  blue  pigment  (cobalt  blue  or  smalt). 

II.     NON-METALLIC    SUBSTANCES 

51.  Coal.  —  Coal  is  the  accumulated  carbonaceous  matter  from 
the  decay  of  plant  life  in  past  ages  of  the  earth's  history.  There 
are  all  grades,  from  peat  (the"  dark  brown,  partially  formed  coal 
in  vegetable  sod  of  bogs  and  swamps),  through  lignite  or  wood 
coal  and  bituminous  (soft)  coal,  to  the  more  completely  mineralized 
anthracite  (hard)  coal.  Coal  occurs  in  beds,  often  of  great  thick- 
ness, and  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  world.  Iron  and 
coal,  more  than  any  other  mineral  substances,  are  the  basis  of  a 
nation's  prosperity,  and  with  a  fertile  soil  form  the  tripod  upon 
which  modern  civilization  rests.  In  the  United  States  the  chief 
coal  fields  are  distributed  in  six  areas,  as  follows :  (i)  the  Appa- 
lachian coal  fields  from  Pennsylvania  to  Alabama,  including  about 
65,000  square  miles,  and  the  most  important  coal-producing  area 
of  the  country  ;  (2)  the  northern  area,  about  7000  square  miles  in 
Michigan ;  (3)  the  central  area  of.  about  48,000  square  miles, 
embracing  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  the  western  part  of  Kentucky  ; 
(4)  the  western  area,  a  vast  trans-Mississippi  strip  of  about  98,000 
square  miles,  extending  in  detached  fields  from  Iowa  to  the  Mexi- 
can border ;  (5)  the  Rocky  Mountain  area  of  numerous  isolated 
basins  scattered  throughout  the  Plateau  States ;  and  (6)  the  Pacific 
Slope  coal  fields  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington. 


76  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Coal  of  a  peculiar  nature  is  also  found  in  southern  New  England. 
This  is  an  anthracite  which  does  not  burn  readily,  but  it  is  not 
quickly  consumed,  and  it  produces  relatively  a  large  amount  of 
heat.  In  its  nature  it  approaches  graphite.  In  the  region  where 
this  is  found  there  have  developed  from  it,  local  industries  in  the 
manufacture  of  stove  facings,  stove  blacking,  pipe  coverings,  and 
paints. 

Both  bituminous  and  anthracite  coal  occur  in  the  Appalachian 
area,  the  latter  being  found  only  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  (the 
Schuylkill,  Lehigh,  and  Wyoming  districts).  The  rest  of  the 
Appalachian  coal  measures  are  bituminous  and  include  important 
fields  in  western  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Ohio,  West  Virginia, 
the  eastern  part  of  Kentucky,  and  in  Tennessee,  Alabama,  and 
Georgia.  The  bituminous  (and  semi-bituminous)  occurs  in 
relation  with  iron  in  this  area,  and  this  fact  has  been  of  great 
importance  in  the  development  of  the  coal-mining  industry,  creat- 
ing an  immediate  market  for  the  coal  in  the  iron  furnaces  of  the 
region.  Coke  (bituminous  coal  from  which  the  volatile  substances 
have  been  driven  off)  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pig 
iron  and  steel. 

The  central  and  western  areas  produce  bituminous  chiefly,  and 
the  coal  is  easily  mined  since  the  measures  exist  in  horizontal  beds 
and  not  tilted  as  in  the  mountainous  region  of  the  Appalachian 
area.  Much  of  the  Texas  coal  is  impure,  although  the  output  is  of 
considerable  local  importance.  Both  anthracite  and  bituminous 
beds  of  excellent  quality  are  found  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  and 
Pacific  Slope  areas. 

Pennsylvania  is  the  largest  coal-producing  state  of  the  Union ; 
the  output  of  this  state  for  1901  amounted  to  more  than  82,000,000 
(long)  tons  bituminous,  and  60,000,000  (long)  tons  anthracite.  Illi- 
nois, West  Virginia,  and  Ohio  are  also  large  bituminous  producers. 

The  world  supply  of  coal  in  1900  amounted  to  more  than 
765,000,000  tons  (metric),  an  increase  of  over  40,000,000 


Resources  :  Mineral  Products 


77 


tons  from   the    previous  year.     Of   this   the    United    States    fur- 
nished about  31  per  cent.     The  output    of   Great   Britain  was  a 

1878  1680  1885  1880  1895  1600 


THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  COAL 
,< 
MINERAL  INDUSTRY    1902" 


240 


,1835 


1900 


little  short  of  this,  while  that  of  Germany  amounted  to  about  19 
per  cent  of  the  whole. 


78  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

The  total  area  of  the  world's  known  coal  fields  is  about  471,800 
square  miles,  the  area  of  the  United  States  coal  fields  being  about 
41  per  cent  of  this  (194,000  square  miles).  The  known  coal  fields 
of  China  and  Japan  collectively  exceed  in  area  those  of  the  United 
States.  The  output  of  the  three  great  coal  producing  countries  — 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany  —  amounts  to 


WORLD'S  DISTRIBUTION  OF  COAL 

upwards  of  81  per  cent  of  the  world's  total  production.  Im- 
proved methods  in  mining  and  machinery  have  greatly  lessened 
the  cost  of  coal  by  increasing  the  yield  per  miner  and  this  has 
been  of  immense  advantage  to  the  industries  of  the  world  at  large. 
52.  Petroleum.  —  Coal  oil  or  petroleum  is  found  in  rock  strata 
of  certain  localities.  It,  too,  is  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of 
organic  matter  in  past  geological  periods.  The  most  extensive  oil 
production  of  the  world  is  in  the  United  States  and  the  Caspian 
region  of  Russia,  though  oil  occurs  also  in  Japan,  in  New  Zealand, 
and  in  Canada.  In  the  United  States  the  chief  fields  are  in 
western  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  in  Ohio,  West  Virginia, 
Texas,  Colorado,  and  California.  It  is  likely  that  oil  will  be  dis- 
covered in  other  localities  not  yet  known  to  be  oil-producing,  the 
recent  discovery  of  the  Texas  field  being  an  illustration  of  such  dis- 
covery. The  products  of  petroleum  have  many  uses  in  industrial 
and  domestic  life,  kerosene  for  illuminating  purposes  and  for  fuel, 


Resources:  Mineral  Products  79 

lubricating  oil,  benzine,  gasoline,  naphtha,  and  paraffin  from  the  last 
of  which  vaseline  is  manufactured.  "  Petroleum  must  be  classed 
with  coal  and  iron  as  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  the  coun- 
try, and  one  which  has  added  largely,  not  only  to  our  industrial 
progress,  but  also  to  the  comforts  of  living."1  The  oil  is  shipped  in 
barrels  or  tanks,  or  "  piped  "  to  distant  points  ;  the  method  of  piping 
is  employed  on  an  enormous  scale  in  some  sections.  Much  of  the 
crude  oil  is  thus  transported  through  pipe  lines  to  the  refineries. 
Over  69,000,000  barrels  (42  gallons)  of  crude  petroleum  were 
produced  in  the  United  States  in  1901.  In  the  same  year  Russia 
produced  more  than  85,000,000  barrels.2  These  two  countries 
furnished  over  93  per  cent  of  the  world's  supply  of  petroleum. 

53.  Natural  Gas.  —  Natural  gas  is  closely  related  to  petroleum 
both  in  origin  and  distribution.     The  chief  centers  of  natural  gas 
are  western  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,  the  northwestern  part 
of  Ohio,  and  the  eastern  part  of  Indiana.     It  also  occurs  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  Kentucky.     Its  use  is  local  for  illuminating  and  fuel 
purposes,  it  being  conducted  from  the  gas  wells  in  pipes  for  rela- 
tively short  distances  only.     It  is  used  as  fuel  in  the  manufacture 
of  iron,  steel,  and  glass.     The  economic  outlook  for  natural  gas  is 
limited,  for  with  the  diminution  of  supply  in  a  given  region  which 
must  necessarily  follow,  its  value  as  a  factor  in  industry  will  decline. 

54.  Asphaltum.  —  A  number  of  allied  substances  of  a  bituminous 
nature  are  grouped  together  under  the  general  head  of  asphaltum. 
The  principal  use  of  the  material  is  in  the  manufacture  of  asphalt 
for  paving  purposes.     In  the  United  States  certain  sandstones  in 
California,  Kentucky,  and  Indian  Territory,  and  some  limestone 
in  Indian  Territory  and  Texas,  are  quarried  for  the  bituminous 
material  which  is  used  in  making  asphalt,3  but  the  bulk  of  the  sup- 

1  Tarr,  Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States,  p.  348. 

2"  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  (1901).  The  total  for  Russia  given  in 
Rothwell,  Mineral  Industry,  1902,  is  80,945,247  barrels,  p.  523. 

3  Eldridge,  Report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  (1900-1901),  Part  I, 
pp.  219-252. 


8o  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

ply  comes  from  the  great  pitch  lake  in  the  island  of  Trinidad,  off 
the  northern  coast  of  South  America.  (See  illustration  facing 
p.  202.)  An  allied  substance,  known  as  mineral  wax  or  "  ozokerite," 
is  found  chiefly  in  Austria-Hungary.  It  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  candles,  and  as  a  substitute  for  beeswax  and  vaseline. 
It  is  also  used  as  an  insulator  in  electrical  work. 

55.  Building  Stones.  —  The  use  of  building  stones  is  still  largely 
local ;  the  best  varieties,  however,  are  being  shipped  considerable 
distances  within  the  country,  but  building  stones  are  not  exported 
to  any  extent.  The  weight  and  size  of  the  material  precludes  the 
transportation  of  the  poorer  varieties.  Nearly  every  region  finds 
the  rocks  of  its  own  vicinity  suited  to  building  purposes,  though 
of  late  the  trade  in  building  stone  has  developed  considerably.1 
Granite  is  mostly  quarried  in  New  England,  but  many  other  states 
have  important  granite  quarries,  as  Pennsylvania,  California,  Geor- 
gia, Virginia,  Delaware,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Wis- 
consin, Missouri,  Colorado,  and  South  Dakota.  Sandstone,  a 
widespread  rock  much  used  in  building,  is  largely  quarried  in 
Ohio  and  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.  Bluestone,  a  fine-grained 
sandstone  of  the  nature  of  a  shale,  which  breaks  into  large,  slab- 
like  pieces,  is  much  used  for  flagstones  in  paving.  It  is  mainly 
quarried  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey.  Slate 
depends  upon  its  peculiar  cleavage  (the  property  of  splitting  up 
into  thin  sheets)  for  its  usefulness.  Its  chief  value  is  for  roofing 
purposes,  school  slates,  flagging,  doorsills,  etc.  It  is  largely 
quarried  in  New  England  and  the  Appalachian  States,  notably 
Vermont  and  Pennsylvania.  Marble  is  a  limestone,  of  a  crystal- 
line texture  and  generally  white  in  color,  though  frequently  banded 
and  mottled  with  blue,  brown,  and  other  shades.  It  is  extensively 

1  "  Within  twenty  years  combinations  among  stone  producers  have  followed  the 
lead  of  other  productive  industries;  close  business  relations  in  far  distant  localities 
have  brought  about  sharp  competition,  With  consequent  improvements  in  methods  of 
producing,  marketing,  transporting,  and  finishing  grades  of  stone  formerly  used  only 
locally."  —  2ist  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 


Resources:  Mineral  Products  8 1 

used  for  building  purposes  and  is  quarried  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States,  though  Vermont  is  the  chief  marble-quarrying  state. 
The  Rutland  quarries  there  are  celebrated  throughout  the  country. 
Serpentine,  a  stone  of  a  greenish  or  reddish  appearance,  is  used 
locally  for  building  purposes,  notably  in  southeastern  Pennsylvania 
and  in  Maryland.  Limestone  is  quarried  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  and  aside  from  its  use  as  a  building  material,  is  mainly 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  quicklime  for  mortar,  as  a  flux  in 
blast  furnaces,  in  the  making  of  plaster,  and  for  fertilizers.  Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio,  New  York,  Maine,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Mis- 
souri, Illinois,  California,  and  Connecticut  are  (1901)  the  largest 
producers  of  building  stones.  i 

56.  Cements.  —  Limestone   burned   in   kilns  forms  lime,  which 
mixed  with  water  and  sand,  makes  a  cement  known  as  mortar  or 
plaster.     Hydraulic  and    Portland  cements  have  the   property  of 
"setting"  or  hardening  under  water.     Cement  is  produced  most 
largely  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  New  York. 

57.  Clays.  —  Clays  result  from  the  decomposition  of  rock,  the 
finer  and  purer  grades  coming  from  a  feldspar.     Clay  enters  into 
industrial  life  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  for  the  lining  of  fur- 
naces (fire  clay),  for  drainage  tiles,  for  chinaware,  and  for  pottery 
of  various  sorts.     The  workable  clays  are  usually  found  in  beds  as 
the  deposit  of  some  ancient  sea,  lake,  or  estuary  bottom.     In  the 
glazing  industry  the  finer  sort  of  clay  (kaolin)  is  of  quite  local  pro- 
duction.    The  chief  centers  are  Georgia,  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey. 

58.  Fertilizers.  — The  materials  used  to  enrich  the  soil  as  plant 
foods  may  be  divided  into  three  groups,  —  (i)  limestone,  (2)  gyp- 
sum, and  (3)  phosphates.     Limestone  (the  carbonate)  in  the  form 
of  the  burnt  product  (lime)  is  spread  upon  the  soil  for  fertilizing 
purposes.     Marl  (a  clay  containing  vast  quantities  of  shells)  is  of 
local  use  as  a  fertilizer,  especially  in  New  Jersey  where  it  is  more 
or  less  abundant.     Gypsum  has  two  important  uses,  —  as  a  fertilizer 


82  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

and  in  the  form  of  plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  widely  distributed  and  is 
frequently  associated  with  salt.  Two  classes  of  phosphatic  de- 
posit are  recognized,  —  the  mineral  phosphate  and  rock  phosphate 
(resulting  from  guano,  bone  beds,  etc.).  Little  if  any  of  the  mineral 
phosphate  is  mined  in  the  United  States,  but  it  is  worked  to  some 
extent  in  Canada.  Guano  is  a  form  of  rock  phosphate,  the  result 
of  the  accumulated  excrement  of  sea  fowl  on  rocky  shores  and 
islands.  Vast  deposits  of  this  material  have  been  formed  on  the 
west  coast  of  South  America.  Rock  phosphate  is  found  in  the 
bone  beds  of  Florida,  Tennessee,  and  South  Carolina,  and  in  other 
localities  of  the  southern  Coastal  Plain.  These  beds  are  immense 
accumulations  of  the  remains  of  fossil  animals,  which  have  been 
converted  into  mineral  substance.  The  remains  appear  to  have 
been  accumulated  in  old  estuaries.  Charleston  and  Beaufort,  South 
Carolina,  are  the  chief  centers  of  the  phosphate  industry.  Artificial 
manures  are  also  prepared  from  the  refuse  of  fish  and  other  animals  ; 
large  factories  for  this  purpose  are  established  in  various  places. 

59.  Mineral  Waters.  —  Water  issuing  from  the  ground  as  springs 
contains  mineral  matter  in  solution.     In  some  of  these  springs  the 
dissolved  mineral  matter  is  of  such  character  and  quantity  as  to 
qualify  the  spring  as  "  mineral."     The  utilization  of  these  waters 
for  medicinal  purposes  is  a  growing  industry  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  either  directly  from  the  spring,  or  by  bottling  and  ship- 
ment.    New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  California  are  (1901) 
among  the  chief  states  in  the  production  of  mineral  waters. 

60.  Precious  Stones.  —  Most  of  the  varieties  of  gems  or  precious 
stones  are  found  in  this  country,  but  not  in  quantities  that  would 
warrant  commercial  enterprise.     The  only  gems  produced  in  paying 
quantities  are  turquoise  and   pearls.     The   latter   are   frequently 
found   in   certain   fresh-water   clams  (the   pearl   itself  being   the 
result  of  a  deposit  in  the  clam  shell  due  to  the  irritation  by  a  grain 
of  sand  or  some  other  foreign  matter).     Veins  of  turquoise  exist 
in  New  Mexico. 


Resources :  Mineral  Products  83 

61.  Abrasive  Materials.  —  The  mineral  known  as  corundum  (of 
which  sapphire  is  a  pure  crystalline  form)  is  an  important  abrasive 
material,  containing  much  oxide  of  iron  ;  this  is  termed  emery.     The 
chief  sources  of  corundum   in  this  country  are   North  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Montana.     Emery  is  found  in  Massachusetts,  though 
the  larger  part  used  in  the  United  States  is  imported.    The  silicious 
tests,  or  minute  shells,  of  certain  low  forms  of  life  (diatoms  and  in- 
fusoria) have  collected  in  some  localities  in  large  quantities  as  a 
result  of  stream  deposit.     This  deposit  is  known  as  diatomaceous  or 
infusorial  earth  and  is  largely  used  in  the  form  of  a  powder  for  clean- 
ing purposes.     It  is  also  used  as  an  absorbent  in  the  manufacture 
of  dynamite.     It  occurs  chiefly  in  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey, 
Maryland,  and  California.     Sandstone  of  a  firm,  gritty  character,  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  grindstones,  which  come  mainly  from 
localities  in  Ohio,  Michigan,  South   Dakota,  and   California.     A 
much  more  compact  variety  of  sandstone  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  millstones  or  "  buhrstones,"  though  its  use  in  milling  is 
largely  being  replaced  by  the  metal  and   porcelain   rollers.     Oil- 
stones of  a  fine  grain  are  found  in  Arkansas,  which  is  the  chief 
center  of  oilstone  manufacture  in  this  country,  though  Indiana  and 
New  Hampshire  also  produce  very  good  stones  of  this  sort.    Whet- 
stones are  a  somewhat  coarser  variety  ;  the  chief  center  of  their 
production  is  in  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  Massachusetts. 

62.  Salt.  —  Common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  is  obtained  either 
by  the  evaporation  of  a  brine,  or  from  deposits  of  rock  salt.     These 
deposits   resulted  from  the  evaporation  of  salt  water  or  brine  in 
past  ages,  leaving  the  material  incorporated  as  rock  salt  with  the 
other   rock   strata.     A   number  of   salt  works  are  located  about 
the  salt   lakes  of   Utah   and   Nevada;   these   obtain    salt  by  the 
evaporation  of  water.      The  use  of  the  product  from  these  works 
is  mainly  local    (process  of  chlorination  in  reducing  ores).     The 
main  supply  of  the  salt  used  in  this  country  comes  from  the  de- 
posits of  rock  salt  in  various  places,  chiefly  in  Michigan  and  New 


84  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

York,  though  Kansas,  Ohio,  California,  and  West  Virginia  con- 
tribute considerable  quantities.  Over  20,000,000  barrels  of  salt 
were  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1900  (a  barrel  equals  280 
pounds),  representing  a  value  of  more  than  6,000,000  dollars. 
Aside  from  the  use  of  salt  for  domestic  purposes,  a  large  quantity 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  baking  and  caustic  soda,  and  in  the 
reduction  of  metallic  ores.  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Germany,  and 
the  United  States  are  the  largest  salt-producing  countries  in  the 
world. 

63.  Other  Non-metallic  Substances.  —  Graphite  or  plumbago  (a 
pure  form  of  carbon)  is  the  result  of  the  alteration  of  carbonaceous 
matter.  It  occurs  in  Rhode  Island  in  relation  with  anthracite 
coal.  The  chief  center  of  graphite  mining  is  at  Ticonderoga, 
New  York,  but  some  mining  is  also  done  in  Pennsylvania, 
Michigan,  and  other  states.  Its  most  important  use  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  lead  pencils,  black  lead  crucibles,  and  as  a  lubri- 
cant. The  cheaper  varieties  are  used  for  stove  blacking,  etc. 
Talc  and  steatite  or  soapstone  occur  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
but  their  quarrying  is  confined  to  a  few  localities.  The  chief 
states  producing  soapstone  are  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and  North 
Carolina.  The  large  slabs  are  used  for  hearths,  stove  linings, 
and  tubs  of  various  sorts,  the  smaller  pieces  for  slate  pencils 
and  ornaments.  It  is  also  used  as  a  basis  for  toilet  powders, 
in  the  adulteration  of  soap,  paper,  and  rubber,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  paint,  and  as  a  lubricant.  Asbestos  is  a  fibrous  substance 
derived  from  two  kinds  of  minerals.  It  is  used  largely  for  fire- 
proofing  purposes  in  the  form  of  cloth,  paint,  paper,  etc.  The 
domestic  supply  comes  chiefly  from  Georgia ;  some  is  found  in 
Massachusetts,  and  California,  and  to  some  extent  in  other  regions. 
Sulphur  is  used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  matches,  gunpowder, 
and  sulphuric  acid,  and  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  is  obtained 
largely  from  native  sulphur,  the  supply  of  which  in  this  country 
comes  almost  entirely  from  Utah  and  Nevada.  Magnesite  and  soda 


Resources:  Mineral  Products  85 

both  occur  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  and  will  un- 
doubtedly be  found  available  for  the  various  purposes  to  which  they 
are  applied  when  the  demand  is  sufficiently  developed  to  make 
their  exploitation  profitable.  Bromine  is  produced  as  a  by-product 
in  the  salt  manufacture  in  Michigan,  West  Virginia,  etc.  Its  chief 
use  is  for  chemical  and  disinfectant  purposes.  Borax  is  found  in 
the  arid  districts  of  the  West,  chiefly  in  the  dry  lake  beds  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Nevada,  from  whence  our  main  supply  comes.  It  has  a 
wide  use  in  the  arts  and  in  medicine.  Barytes,  used  as  a  pigment 
and  for  purposes  of  adulteration,  comes  chiefly  from  Missouri,  Ten- 
nessee, Virginia,  and  from  North  and  South  Carolina.  Mica  is 
mainly  quarried  in  North  Carolina  and  New  Hampshire,  but  is 
also  produced  in  South  Dakota  and  New  Mexico.  Its  principal 
use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  panels  for  stoves  and  furnace  doors, 
for  electrical  purposes,  as  a  lubricant,  and  for  making  the  frosting 
on  wall  papers.  Fluorite,  used  as  a  flux  in  ore  reduction,  in  the 
manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of  glass,  and  for  chemical  purposes, 
is  mined  in  the  southern  part  of  Illinois,  where  it  occurs  in  the 
galena-bearing  limestones.  It  has  also  been  discovered  in  other 
regions. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

47.  What  other  methods  of  dealing  with  products  than  that  entered  upon  in 
Chapter  VI  ?     (See  Clow,  Introduction  to  The  Study  of  Commerce,  Chapter  II). 

48.  What  is  the  meaning  of  commodities  ?     Of  goods  ?     Of  merchandise  ? 

49.  What  is  meant  by  raw  materials  of  commerce  ?     Try  to  make  a  funda- 
mental distinction  between  raw  products  and  manufactured  commodities.     Show 
by  illustration  how  a  commodity  that  is  a  finished  product  for  one  industrial  pro- 
ess  may  be  raw  material  for  another. 

50.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  "staples"  as  applied  to  products  of  dif- 
ferent regions  ?     What  is  the  meaning  of  "native"  as  applied  to  metals? 

51.  Why  is  the  iron  ore  transported  to  the  fuel,  and  not  vice  versa?    Name 
the  three  greatest  centers  of  iron  and  steel  manufacture  in  the  United  States. 
How  account  for  the  prominence  in  each  case  ? 


86  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

52.  What  is  the  weight  in  pounds  of  a  short  ton  ?     Long  ton  ?     Metric  ton  ? 
What  is  the  origin  of  each  and  to  what  sort  of  commodities  is  each  applied  ? 
Which  of  these  will  likely  be  the  standard  ultimately  ? 

53.  Compare  the  value  of  the  gold  production  of  California  with  the  value  of 
her  agricultural  products. 

54.  "The  Coal  Question  :  "  Discuss  the  ethics  and  the  economics  of  wastefulness 
in  the  domestic  and  industrial  consumption  of  coal.     Compare  the  known  coal 
supply  of  the  United  States  with  that  of  the  other  great  industrial  powers,  keep- 
ing in  mind  the  dependence  on  coal.     What  conclusion  is  reached  from  the  com- 
parison ? 

55.  Write  a  short  essay  on  salt,  dealing  with  the  following  :   («)  sources  of 
supply;  (£)  commercial  use  and  value  ;  and  (c}  trade. 

56.  With  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States,  fill  in  the  regional  distribution 
of  the  principal  commercial  mineral  products. 

57.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "by-product"  as  applied  to  an  industry  ?     Try  to 
find  out  about  the  profits  from  the  converting  of  waste  material  into  by-products. 
What  are  the  chief  by-products  of  petroleum  refining  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

Tarr,  Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States.     Macmillan  Co. 

*  Roth  well,  The  Mineral  Industry,  issued  annually.  Volume  for  1902,  edited  by 
Struthers.  New  York  and  London. 

**United  States  Geological  Survey,  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States. 
Published  annually. 

*Rocheleau,  Minerals,  Vol.  I  in  "Great  American  Industries."  Elementary  but 
valuable.  Flanigan  Company,  Chicago. 

Coal  Trade  of  the  United  States  and  the  World's  Coal  Supply  and  Trade. 
Monthly  Summary  of  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department;  Septem- 
ber, 1902. 

**Yeats,  Natural  History  of  Raw  Materials  of  Commerce,  Part  IV.  Philip  & 
Son;  London. 


CHAPTER  VII 

RESOURCES:    VEGETABLE    PRODUCTS 

64.   Distribution  of  Vegetable  Products  in  Relation  to  Temperature 

and  Moisture.  —  The  area  of  the  United  States  is  divisible  because 
of  conditions  of  climate,  into  two  temperature  regions  or  zones,  — 
the  northern  and  the  southern.  In  each  of  these,  certain  character- 
istic features  in  animal  and  plant  life  prevail,  as  conditioned  by  tem- 
perature. The  general  facts  of  temperature  control  have  already 
been  outlined  (Section  1 1).  The  boundary  line  between  the  two 
regions  is  exceedingly  irregular,  owing  to  topographical  influences. 
Thus,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  the  lower  temperature 
prevailing  over  the  Appalachian  Highland  causes  the  line  to  bend 
southward  for  a  considerable  distance  around  the  southern  end  of 
the  mountains,  while  in  the  central  region  it  extends  far  northward 
to  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan  River  in  Canada,  because  of  the 
comparatively  high  summer  temperature  prevailing  over  the  Great 
Plains  and  Mississippi  Valley.1  The  southern  region  is  again 
divided  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  zone  as  a  result  of  the  great 
increase  of  temperature  over  the  southern  Coastal  Plain  and  the 
Gulf  border.  The  lower  southern  zone  is  the  great  cotton-growing 
region  of  the  United  States.  The  upper  southern  zone  corresponds 
in  general  with  the  corn-belt  and  the  zone  of  winter  wheat,  while 
spring  wheat  is  grown  in  the  northern  region.  Among  forest  trees 
the  magnolias,  live  oaks,  papaws,  buckeyes,  tulip  trees,  and  sweet 

1  The  boundary  between  the  northern  and  southern  zones  is  an  isothermal  line  — 
the  midsummer  isotherm  of  64.40°  F.,  which  represents  the  average  for  the  six  hottest 
consecutive  weeks.  It  is  not  a  fixed  line,  but  represents  an  approximate  boundary 
during  the  period  of  plant  growth. 

87 


88  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

gums  are  conspicuously  southern.  These  gradually  give  place 
toward  the  north  to  the  hickories,  chestnuts,  and  oaks  of  the  mid- 
dle region.  Farther  north  still,  as  in  New  England  and  on  the 
Appalachians,  the  maples,  beeches,  aspens,  and  birches,  extend  to 
the  borders  of  the  northern  zone  of  evergreen  forests,  where  pines, 
spruces,  firs,  and  larches  are  the  predominating  trees. 

The  southern  region  is  further  divided  into  an  eastern  humid 
and  a  western  arid  province,  as  already  noticed  (Section  13). 

These  features  of  the  distribution  of  temperature  and  moisture 
Jie  at  the  basis  of  the  agriculture  of  the  United  States.  Six  indus- 
trial divisions  are  recognized,  in  each  of  which  some  form  of 
agriculture  is  the  basic  factor  of  prosperity:  (i)  in  the  region 
embraced  by  New  England  and  New  York  mixed  farming,  dairy- 
ing, and  market  gardening  are  carried  on  as  staple  agricultural 
pursuits.  Farming  on  a  large  scale  has  been  precluded  because  of 
the  irregularity  of  relief,  the  forbidding  nature  of  the  climate 
and  the  thin  soil,  and  from  the  fact  that  no  single  crop  ever  became 
preeminent;  (2)  the  corn  and  winter  wheat  belt  lies  in  a  zone 
included  approximately  between  the  forty-third  and  thirty-fifth  par- 
allels of  latitude,  and  extending  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the 
western  borders  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  It  thus  corresponds, 
in  a  general  way,  to  the  upper  zone  of  the  southern  region.  In 
this  area  the  raising  of  live  stock,  as  dependent  upon  corn,  is  a 
leading  industry  ;  (3)  south  of  the  thirty-fifth  parallel  is  the  cotton- 
growing  belt,  reaching  to  .the  western  border  of  Texas.  This  area 
corresponds  almost  exactly  with  the  lower  zone  of  the  southern 
region  ;  (4)  the  spring  wheat  belt  lies  north  of  the  forty-third  par- 
allel, extending  from  the  Lake  Region  westward  to  Montana  and 
Wyoming;  (5)  the  Plateau  States  —  Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming, 
Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  Nevada  —  are  preemi- 
nently "  range  states,"  owing  to  the  diminished  rainfall.  They 
are  given  over  to  the  production  of  live  stock  and  wool ;  (6)  the 
Pacific  States  —  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California  —  form  an 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products  89 

agricultural  unit.      Wheat,  barley,  fruits,  and  live  stock  (besides 
timber)  form  the  staple  products.1 

In  reviewing  the  vegetable  products  of  the  United  States, 
the  most  natural  and  logical  order  is :  first,  food  plants ;  second, 
fiber  plants ;  third,  forest  products;  and  fourth,  other  vegetable 
products. 

I.    FOOD    PLANTS 

65.  Corn  or  Maize.  —  Indian  corn  or  maize  is  the  largest  single 
crop  in  the  United  States,  the  yield  of  1900  amounting  to  upwards  of 
2,000,000,000  bushels.  This  amount  represents  about  four-fifths  of 
the  total  world  production  of  corn.  The  states  of  greatest  production 
1901  (each  state  producing  over  100,000,000  bushels)  are  Iowa, 
Illinois,  and  Nebraska.  Other  states  producing  largely  of 
corn  are  Missouri,  Kansas,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  These  constitute 
the  "corn-belt."  Their  combined  production  amounted  to  over 
one-half  of  the  entire  crop  of  the  country.  Corn  is  used  chiefly 
as  a  food  for  man  and  stock.  Its  value  as  a  food  lies  in  the  com- 
paratively large  percentage  of  fatty  material  contained  in  the  grain, 
and  in  the  starch  and  nitrogenous  substances.  The  ease  with  which 
it  can  be  cultivated  in  newly  cleared  land  was  a  very  important 
factor  in  the  early  settlement  of  the  Middle  West.  When  ground, 
its  flour  forms  the  cheap  and  nutritious  corn  meal  or  Indian  meal  so 
largely  used  in  domestic  economy.  In  the  manufacture  of  glucose, 
starch,  and  distilled  liquors  it  has  a  very  wide  and  important  use. 
The  glucose  industry  alone  consumes  between  50,000,000  and 
60,000,000  bushels  of  each  year's  crop.  The  value  of  the  export 
from  glucose  manufactures  amounts  to  $3,600,000,  which  is  only 
a  small  fraction  of  the  value  of  this  product  consumed  at  home. 
It  is,  however,  as  a  stock  food  that  corn  finds  its  greatest  use. 
Not  only  is  the  grain  used  for  feeding  and  fattening  cattle,  hogs, 
and  fowls,  but  the  whole  plant,  leaves  and  stalk,  is  used  as 
"fodder,"  either  dry  and  stacked,  or  as  "ensilage  "  kept  in  large 

1  See  Map  of  Productive  Areas,  opposite  p.  124. 


90  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

quantities  under  pressure,  or  in  a  pit  or  "  silo."  Returns  in  beef 
and  hog-products,  milk,  butter,  eggs,  and  poultry,  are  largely  from 
corn  converted  by  the  process  of  animal  life  (metabolism)  into 
these  more  concentrated  forms.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of  the 
corn  crop  of  the  United  States  is  used  as  a  food  for  stock  in  the 
corn-belt  section.  The  land  is  again  enriched  for  future  crops 
by  the  manures  returned  to  it  from  animal  life.  The  small  portion 
of  corn  exported,  finds  its  way  for  the  most  part  into  Canada, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  countries  of  Europe.  The  United  States 
had  devoted  83,320,872  acres  of  land  to  producing  corn  in  1900, 
and  the  value  of  the  entire  crop,  at  farm  prices,  amounted  to 
upward  of  $750,000,000.* 

Maize  grows  best  in  a  rich,  loamy  soil,  and  in  a  climate  of  abundant 
sunshine  and  rainfall.  A  region  where  the  summer  is  comparatively 
long,  from  four  and  one-half  to  seven  months,  and  where  the  possi- 
bilities of  frost  during  the  crop's  growth  are  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
where  the  soil  is  rich  in  the  elements  of  plant  food  (as  in  river 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  INDIAN  CORN 

alluvium,  glacial  deposits,  and  old  forest  floors),  and  is  not  too 
stiff  and  compact  to  allow  of  readily  drying  after  rains  by  free 
drainage ;  where  the  summer  rains,  though  copious,  are  not  too 
heavy  and  frequent  —  such  a  region  is  an  ideal  one  for  the  cultiva- 

1  Figures  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products  91 

tion  of  maize.  All  these  conditions  are  found  throughout  the  corn- 
belt  of  the  United  States,  save  in  the  very  western  portion  where 
the  disability  of  diminishing  rainfall  is  overcome  by  irrigation. 

Maize  was  originally  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America, 
and  has  spread  by  cultivation  throughout  a  large  portion  of  the 
tropical  and  temperate  regions  of  the  world.  The  world's  supply 
of  maize  to-day  comes  from  the  United  States,  Hungary,  Rumania, 
Italy,  Argentina,  southern  Russia,  Turkey,  and  Egypt. 

66.  Wheat.  —  Next  to  corn,  wheat  is  the  most  important  food 
crop  of  the  United  States.  The  production  of  wheat  for  1900 
amounted  to  522,230,000  bushels.1  This  exceeded  the  crop  of  any 
other  single  country  by  more  than  100,000,000  bushels.  For  1901 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  reported  748,460,000  bushels.  Good 
wheat  land  is  usually  a  moderately  rolling  country,  which  insures 
sufficient  drainage,  and  at  the  same  time  allows  of  easy  tilling  and 
of  harvesting  by  field  machinery.  The  best  soil's  are  loams  or 
light  clays  of  not  too  stiff  a  character,  and  containing  the  necessary 
elements  of  plant  food.  Climate  is  essentially  a  controlling  factor 
in  wheat  growth.  Wheat  differs  from  corn  in  one  particular,  for 
while  the  latter  is  a  summer  crop,  wheat  from  its  nature,  being  a 
"  winter  annual,"  requires  a  season  of  coolness  and  moisture  in 
which  to  germinate  and  attain  its  young  growth.  Alternate  spells 
of  freezing  and  thawing  kill  the  young  plants,  while  the  warmth 
induced  by  a  covering  of  snow  is  the  most  favorable  condition 
possible  for  winter  wheat.  According  to  climatic  and  weather 
conditions,  wheat  is  sown  either  in  the  autumn  or  in  the  early 
spring.  The  heads  of  the  grain  come  to  perfection  best  in  dry, 
sunny,  summer  weather.  "The  ideal  climate  for  wheat  is  one  with 
a  long  and  rather  wet  winter,  with  but  little  or  no  frost,  prolonged 
into  a  cool  and  rather  wet  spring,  which  gradually  fades  into  a 
warmer  summer,  the  weather  growing  gradually  drier  as  it  grows 

l  This  statement  is  based  on  The  Yearbook  of  Agriculture. 


92  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

warmer."1  These  conditions  are  met  throughout  many  regions 
in  the  temperate  zones.  In  North  America  the  wheat-growing 
region  extends  much  farther  north  than  the  corn-belt,  reaching 
beyond  the  northern  tier  of  states  into  Canada.  The  soil  and 
climate  of  the  Prairie  Region  and  of  the  northern  portions  of  the 
Pacific  Slope  are  especially  favorable  for  wheat  culture. 

With  the  invention  and  improvement  of  farm  machinery,  the 
vast  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  is  planted  and  harvested 
with  comparatively  little  labor  and  expense.  Large  quantities  of 
the  grain  are  stored  in  elevators  at  various  centers,  ready  for 
immediate  shipment  "  on  call."  A  vast  amount  finds  its  way  to 


1.  D  rtfd.8t.tt.. 

Z.  BUM!..  3. 
4. 

5.  Annri.  Hungary. 

6.  Otrmany.     7.   lulj. 
8.  Arg«ntin..    9.  Spuii 

10.  Briti.h  Isle..    11. 
12. 

MB    PRINCTPAl   WHfAT 
•B     PRODUCING    REGIONS 
LESS    IMPORTANT      V 
PRODUCING  «6ION! 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  WHEAT 

the  great  mills  of  Minneapolis  and  Superior,  where  it  is  ground 
between  chilled  iron  and  porcelain  rollers,  and  is  shipped  to  the 
markets  of  the  world  as  wheat  flour.  This  flour  forms  the  main 
breadstuff  of  civilized  peoples ;  to  the  world's  supply  the  United 
States  in  1900  (outside  of  home  consumption)  furnished  18,699,194 
barrels. 

Wheat  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  every  region  of  the  north 
and  south  temperate  zones,  and  also  within  the  limits  of  the 
tropics  where  soil  and  climate  are  favorable.  To-day  the  prin- 
cipal wheat-growing  countries  (those  producing  over  100,000,000 

1  Statistics  of  Agriculture.     Tenth  Census,  pp.  63-64. 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products 


93 


bushels  a  year)  are  United  States,  Russia,  France,  British  India, 
Austria-Hungary,  Germany,  Italy,  Spain  and  Argentina.  In  most 
countries  only  enough  is  produced  for  home  consumption,  and  in 
many  there  is  a  large  deficit  which  has  to  be  made  up  by  importa- 
tion from  the  greater  wheat-producing  lands.  The  following  diagram 
shows  the  comparative  output  of  wheat  for  1900  :  — 

Wheat  presents  a  great  number  of  varieties,  and  these  depend 
largely  upon  the  character  of  the  climate.  Among  the  principal 
features  of  variation  are  the 
amount  and  character  of  the 
gluten  (the  nitrogenous  prin- 
ciple of  the  grain)  and  the 
hardness  of  the  coats  or 
coverings.  The  superior 
quality  of  certain  wheats 
appears  to  depend  upon  the 
relative  amount  of  sunshine 
during  the  period  of  ripen- 
ing. American  wheats  are 
particularly  noted  for  the 

brightness    of   their    grain. 

,         ,  .    WHEAT  CROP  OF  THE  WORLD  APPROXIMATED 
Hard  wheats   are  drought-  m  BUSH£LS  (igoo) 

resistent,  and   this   feature  Total,  2,586,564,000 

characterizes  many  of   the 

Russian  wheats  which  are  especially  adapted  for  growth  in  semi- 
arid  regions,  like  those  in  the  southwestern  United  States  and  in 
parts  of  the  Russian  Empire.  The  same  is  true  of  the  macaroni 
varieties,  which  besides  have  a  pasty  gluten,  making  them  especially 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  macaroni.  The  hard  wheats  pro- 
duced in  various  parts  of  the  world  have  revolutionized  milling 
machinery,  the  old  millstones  having  been  replaced  by  the  chilled 
iron  and  porcelain  rollers. 

67.   Rye.  —  The  rye  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1901  amounted 


94  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

to  only  30,345,000  bushels  as  compared  with  the  crop  of  the 
world  which  amounted  to  1,448,072,000  bushels.  Of  the  United 
States,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin  and  New  York,  led  as  rye-produc- 
ing states,  followed  by  Nebraska,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota.1 

Rye  is  capable  of  withstanding  a  greater  degree  of  cold  than 
wheat,  and  is  consequently  grown  farther  north.  It  also  thrives  in 
a  less  fertile  soil.  It  forms  the  chief  breadstuff  of  many  millions 
of  European  peoples,  and  is  the  most  important  grain  crop  of  cen- 
tral and  northern  Europe,  vast  areas  of  which  are  covered  by  a 
sandy  soil  of  very  poor  quality.  It  has  a  wide  use  for  distilling 
in  the  manufacture  of  whisky. 

68.  Barley.  —  Barley  is   the   most   widely   ranging   of   all  the 
cereals,  being  grown  in  Norway  as  high  as  latitude  70°  N.  and 
throughout  the  Mediterranean  countries.     Outside  of  Scandinavia, 
where  it  is  largely  used  as  a  breadstuff,  its  chief  use  is  for  malt  in 
the  fermentive  process  of  the  brewing  industries  ;  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland   barley  is  used   in   the   making   of   whisky.     Out  of   the 
995,466,000  bushels  reported  for  the  world  at  large,  for  the  year 
1901,  the  United  States  contributed  only  109,933,000  bushels,  and 
this  chiefly  from  the  states  of  California,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  and  Wisconsin. 

69.  Oats.  —  The  total  oat  crop  of  the  United  States  for  1900 
amounted  to  809,125,989  bushels,  while  that  for  the  rest  of  the 
world  amounted   to  3,120,100,000  bushels.     The   chief   states   in 
oat  production  are  Iowa,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Indiana, 
and  Nebraska.     Of  these,  Illinois  and  Iowa  furnished  nearly  one- 
third  of  the  entire  crop,  while  the  other  states  produced  more  than 
half  of  the  remainder.     Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  Texas  also 
produced  important  crops.2 

Oats  thrive  best  in  a  moist  climate  with  cool  summers.  They  do 
well  in  a  variety  of  soils,  but  exhibit  a  remarkable  variation  in  the 

1  See  United  States  Yearbook  of  Agriculture  for  1900. 

2  See  United  States  Yearbooks  of  Agriculture,  for  1900,  p.  773;  for  1901,  p.  719. 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products 


95 


amounts  produced  in  different  localities.  Their  chief  use  in  this 
country  is  as  a  food  for  horses,  and  the  same  may  be  said  for  most 
of  the  European  countries.  In  certain  regions,  however,  oatmeal 
forms  an  important  breadstuff  of  the  peoples,  notably  in  Scotland, 
where  it  is  eaten  in  the  form  of  oat  cakes  and  oatmeal  porridge. 

70.   Review  of  the  Cereals.  —  The  cereals  are  grasses,  the  seeds 
or  grains  of  which  are  used  as  a  food.     With   the   exception  of 


\Vest     Irom    87    Greenwich      82 


§  Centre  of  Population  1850-1900 
Centre  of  Wheat  Production  1850-1900 
Centre  of  Corn  Production  1850-1900 
(S)  Centre  of  Manufactures  1850-1900 


WESTWARD  MOVEMENT  OF  CEREAL  PRODUCTION  IN  RELATION  TO  THAT  OF 
POPULATION  AND  MANUFACTURE 

maize,  those  in  use  to-day  are  all  Old  World  species,  and  their 
cultivation  reaches  back  to  a  great  antiquity.  As  has  already  been 
noted  the  different  kinds  vary  in  their  relations  to  soil  and  climate, 
and  to  some  extent,  therefore,  in  their  geographical  distribution. 
They  are  the  source  of  the  breadstuffs  of  the  world,  and  some  one 
of  them  is  cultivated  in  practically  every  region  of  the  earth  occupied 
by  civilized  man.  Wheat  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  and  the 


96 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


most  widely  distributed  of  the  cereals ;  maize  is  well  adapted  to 
the  warmer  regions ;  rye,  barley,  and  oats  are  more  restricted  in 
their  use  and  distribution.  In  the  United  States  a  very  interesting 
relation  is  observed  between  the  westward  movement  of  population 
and  the  westward  extension  of  cereal  cultivation.  The  map  on  page 
95  shows  that  while  the  center  of  population  has  advanced  slowly 
westward,  and  is  now  located  in  southeastern  Indiana,  the  center 


1850 


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GENERAL  RELATION  OF  CEREAL  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  TO 

POPULATION 

of  cereal  production  has  advanced  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
available  land  is  thus  utilized  for  crop  growth  in  advance  of  the 
movement  of  population. 

A  question  of  very  great  importance  is  the  relation  that  exists 
between  the  increase  of  population  and  the  increase  of  cereal  pro- 
duction, and  in  recent  years  there  has  been  much  discussion  as  to 
whether  the  future  wheat  supply  of  the  world  could  be  increased 


Resources :    Vegetable  Products  97 

proportionately,  with  the  increase  of  population.  Some  writers  hold 
that  if  the  present  ratio  between  the  increase  of  bread-eating  peo- 
ples and  the  yield  per  acre  of  wheat  continues,  there  will  be  a  uni- 
versal wheat  famine  at  the  end  of  thirty  years.1  However  this  may 
be,  the  most  important  of  the  problems  which  any  government  can 
undertake  is  "  intensive  agriculture,"  the  utilization  of  all  available 
land,  and  the  conservation  of  the  crop-producing  qualities  of  the 
soil.  The  irrigation  of  arid  districts  will  undoubtedly  recover 
much  land  now  lying  idle,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  best  wheats  for 
growth  in  semi-arid  regions  is  fully  as  important.  The  term  "  semi- 
arid  regions,"  applied  in  the  United  States,  refers  to  "  that  portion 
of  the  Great  Plains  lying  between  the  ninety-ninth  and  one  hun- 
dred and  second  meridians,  to  portions  of  eastern  Washington  and 
Oregon,  and  to  those  small  portions  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  and 
basin  states  where  crops  are  grown  without  irrigation."2  As  avail- 
able new  land  for  wheat  growth  is  rapidly  diminishing,  the  main 
point  is  how  to  increase  the  productivity  of  existing  wheat  areas. 
71.  Forage  Crops.  —  Hay  is  the  principal  forage  crop  of  the 
United  States  ;  the  two  main  varieties  of  hay  are  timothy  and  clover. 
The  former  is  a  grass,  the  latter  a  leguminous  plant.  Several 
species  of  millet  (sorghum,  Kafir  corn,  etc.)  are  also  grown  for  for- 
age, notably  the  varieties  of  broom-corn  millet  from  Japan  and 
Russia.  Clover  is  especially  valuable  in  the  "  rotation  of  crops,"  as 
a  "  soil  crop,"  being  rich  in  nitrogenous,  compounds,  and  it  greatly 
increases  the  productivity  of  the  soil  for  wheat  and  other  grains  when 
"plowed  in."  Some  of  the  millets  are  also  valuable  as  soil  crops. 
Lucerne,  another  leguminous  plant  allied  to  clover,  is  largely  grown 
in  California  and  portions  of  the  southwestern  United  States  under 
the  name  of  ''alfalfa."  It  was  introduced  from  South  America 
some  years  ago,  and  is  valuable  as  a  forage  and  soil  crop.  The 
chief  hay-producing  states  are  New  York,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri, 

1  Crookes,  The  Wheat  Problem, 

2  See  Successful  Wheat-growing  in  Semiarid  Districts,  by  M.  A.  Carleton,  United 
States  Yearbook  of  Agriculture  for  1900,  p.  529. 

H 


98  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Pennsylvania,  Nebraska,  Illinois,  and  Indiana.  These  states  each 
produced  over  2,000,000  tons  of  hay  during  1899  ;  New  York, 
Iowa,  and  Kansas  produced  5,154,965,  4,649,378,  and  4>337>342 
tons  respectively.1 

72.  Buckwheat.  —  The  plant  producing  the  buckwheat  of  com- 
merce is  a  member  of  the  same  family  as  the  knotweeds  and  also  of 
the  common  dock  or  sorrel.     Its  seeds  resemble  the  nuts  of  the 
beech  in  their  general  form,  hence  the  name.    Its  cultivation  in  the 
United  States  has  decreased  considerably,  as  in  most  regions  it  is 
a  very  uncertain  crop.      It  grows  in  poor  soil  and  is  sown  late  in 
the  spring ;  it  is,  therefore,  adapted  to  cultivation  in  mountainous 
districts.      Pennsylvania  and  New  York  produce  two-thirds  of  the 
buckwheat  crop,  which  amounted,  in  1901,  to  15,125,939  bushels 
for  the  entire  country. 

73.  Potatoes.  —  The  tubers,  or  swollen  starch-filled  portions  of 
underground  stems,  form  the  potato  of  commerce.      The  plant  was 
originally  a  native  of  the  Andes,  and  was  introduced  into  Europe 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.      Its  adaptability  to  a 
wide  range  of  climate  and  its  ease  of  cultivation,  together  with 
the   fact  that  its  starch  forms  a  nutritious  food-stuff,  make  it  a 
staple   article   of   diet   among   the   peasant   and  working   classes 
throughout  many  European  countries  and  in  the  United  States. 
Potatoes  form  the  main  food  supply  of  the  Irish  peoples  ;  in  North- 
ern Germany,  also,  they  constitute  a  large  proportion  of  the  food 
of  the  working  classes.     Regions  dependent  upon  the  potato  .are 
subject  to  scarcity  of  food  because  of  the  rotting  of  the  crop  in 
seasons  of  abundant  moisture. 

The  potato  crop  of  the  United  States  for  1900  amounted  to 
210,926,897  bushels,  at  a  farm  value  of  $90,811,167.  By  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  crop  is  produced  by  New  York,  Iowa,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Michigan,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Nebraska,  Minnesota, 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Maine.2 

1  Twelfth  Census.          2  United  States  Yearbook  of  Agriculture  for  1900,  p.  796. 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products 


99 


74.  Rice. — The  plant  furnishing  the  rice  of  commerce  is  a  grass 
which  grows  in  warm  regions  in  the  low-lying,  swampy  districts 
of  river  estuaries  and  flood  plains.  In  such  countries  as  China 
and  India  it  forms  the  staple  food  supply  of  millions  of  people. 
The  nutritious  matter  is  in  the  seeds  or  grains,  and  consists  chiefly 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  RICE 

of  starch.  In  the  United  States  only  those  states  lying  along  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  border  are  rice  producers.  The  principal 
states  which  grow  rice  are  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
and  Louisiana.  The  estimated  rice  crop  for  1900  was  more  than 
285,000,000  pounds. 

75.  Sugar. — The  sugar  of  the  civilized  world  is  derived  from 
two  main  sources, — sugar  cane  and  beet  root.  The  sugar  cane  is  a 
grass,  allied  to  the  cereals,  which  grows  in  low,  swampy  regions 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  Though  originally  a  native  of 
India,  it  has  spread  by  cultivation  throughout  the  tropical  and 
subtropical  lands  of  both  hemispheres.  The  juice  of  the  cane, 
which  is  pressed  from  the  stalks  by  heavy  rollers  in  a  mill,  yields 
a  saccharine  material  from  which  the  raw  sugar  of  commerce  is 
crystallized  by  boiling,  filtering,  and  chemical  processes  ;  the  resi- 
due forms  the  molasses  of  commerce.  Louisiana  is  the  only  state 
of  the  Union  producing  sugar  extensively  from  the  cane.  The 
sugar  output  for  this  state  for  1901-1902  amounted  ^-275,000  (long) 
tons.  The  bulk  of  the  sugar  of  the  United  States  comes  from  Cuba, 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  Porto  Rico,  and  will  be  further  consid- 


IOO 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


ered  under  these  heads.  The  sugar  crop  of  the  world  amounts  to 
over  10,000,000  tons,  including  both  cane  and  beet-root  production. 
Beet  sugar  has  become  an  important  item  in  the  world's  com- 
merce. Considerable  competition  exists  between  the  cane  and  the 
beet  as  sources  of  sugar.  On  the  side  of  the  cane,  the  ease  of 
cultivation,  the  cheapness  of  labor  in  the  regions  where  it  grows, 
and  the  comparatively  small  cost  of  the  rough  machinery  for  han- 
dling it,  are  of  advantage  as  compared  with  the  beet.  On  the  other 
hand,  however,  the  beet,  though  requiring  more  care  in  cultivation 
and  more  expensive  machinery  in  the  process  of  extraction,  is  pro- 
duced in  the  more  densely  populated  regions  where  it  is  used, 
thus  obviating  the  cost  of  shipment.  Furthermore,  the  residue  of 


AREAS  OF  BEET  AND  CANE  SUGAR  PRODUCTION 

the  beet  can  be  used  as  a  food  for  cattle,  while  the  crushed  stalks 
of  the  cane  are  comparatively  valueless.  (For  relations  of  produc- 
tion see  p.  387.) 

The  beet  sugar  industry  has  been  greatly  developed  in  European 
countries,  notably  in  Germany,  Austria,  and  France.  The  produc- 
tion in  Europe  for  1901-1902  amounted  to  6,825,000  tons.  In  the 
United  States  the  cultivation  of  the  beet  for  sugar  is  carried  on 
principally  in  California  and  Michigan,  which  produce  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  entire  product  in  beet  sugar.  Nebraska,  Utah,  New 
York,  and  Colorado  produce  over  four-fifths  of  the  remainder.1  A 

i  See  United  States  Yearbook  of  Agriculture  for  1901,  pp.  764-765. 


CALIFORNIA  LEMON  TREES 


WHEAT  HARVESTING  IN  DAKOTA 


Resources:    Vegetable  Produces     •'•    •        ^'. 


small  amount  of  sugar  is  produced  in  certain  other  localities,  for 
example  in  the  southern  and  central  States  from  sorghum,  and 
in  the  mountainous  districts  of  New  England  and  the  middle 
States  from  the  sap  of  sugar  maples. 

76.  Fruit  Culture  and  Garden  Trucking.  —  Fruit  and  garden  farm- 
ing form  important  industries  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Apples  of  many  varieties  are  grown  in  abundance.  In  1900  the 
shipment  of  ripe  and  green  apples  out  of  the  country  amounted 
to  526,636  barrels,  while  the  export  of  the  dried  fruit  reached 
2,247,851  pounds.  The  chief  peach-growing  states  are  California, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  and  Michigan.  The  Pacific 
Slope  is  especially  adapted  to  fruit  culture,  its  abundant  moisture 
and  wide  range  of  climate  (embracing  both  temperate  and  sub- 
tropical conditions)  being  peculiarly  favorable  for  the  cultivation 
of  many  different  varieties.  Chief  among  these  are  oranges, 
lemons,  raisins,  apricots,  figs,  prunes,  and  olives.  The  grape  is 
cultivated  to  a  large  extent,  and  many  fine  domestic  wines  are 
produced,  especially  in  California,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  other 
localities. 

Florida,  in  a  subtropical  climate,  produces  lemons,  pineapples, 
and  other  tropical  fruits.  The  orange  crop  in  Florida  has  been 
severely  impaired  by  frosts.  The  raising  of  small  fruits  for  the 
home  markets  is  a  very  important  branch  of  agriculture  in  many 
parts  of  the  country.  Chief  among  these  is  the  strawberry. 

Vegetable  gardening  is  carried  on  to  supply  the  home  market, 
the  material  being  in  the  main  too  bulky  and  perishable  for  export. 
Peas  and  beans  are  grown  to  a  large  extent  in  many  localities,  also 
egg  plants,  squashes,  lettuce,  spinach,  melons,  cucumbers,  aspara- 
gus, tomatoes,  and  sweet  potatoes.  Cabbages,  turnips,  and  celery 
are  among  the  important  root  and  stock  plants  grown  on  the  truck 
farms. 

Truck  gardening,  both  for  vegetables  and  fruits,  has  developed 
very  largely  of  late  years.  This  is  to  a  great  extent  due  to  the 


TO2 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


demand  for  fresh  vegetables  and  fruits  out  of  season.  This  has 
been  dependent  upon  development  in  the  means  of  transportation. 
Fast  freight  trains,  equipped  with  refrigerator  cars,  rush  the  fresh 
fruits  and  vegetables  from  California  and  Florida,  and  vegetables 
from  the  great  truck  farms  of  the  southern  States  and  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  to  the  populous  cities  of  the  central  States  and  the 
Atlantic  seaboard.  Fast  steamships,  equipped  with  refrigerators, 
perform  the  same  service  along  the  coast.  Many  varieties  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  also  raised  under  glass  during  the 
winter  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  large  cities.  The  principal 
truck  farm  districts  are  the  South  Atlantic  States,  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  the  Gulf  border  from  Alabama  to  Texas,  the  Maryland  and 
Delaware  Peninsula,  New  Jersey,  and  the  country  about  the  great 
eastern  cities. 

II.     FIBER   PLANTS 

77.   Cotton.  —  The  cotton  of  commerce  is  the  fibrous  down  or 
hair  surrounding  the  seeds  of  a  plant.     The  cotton  plant  is  now 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  COTTON 

pretty  generally  cultivated  throughout  the  tropical  and  warm  tem- 
perate regions  of  the  earth.  The  plant  requires  a  warm  and  mod- 
erately moist  climate,  an  absence  of  frost,  and  a  comparatively  long 
summer.  In  the  United  States  these  conditions  are  met  in  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  which  constitute  the  "  cotton-belt." 
Two  species  are  grown :  Barbados  or  "  sea-island  cotton,"  and 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products     /;,  ' 

"upland  cotton."  In  the  "sea-island  cotton"  the  "  staple  "  (i.e. 
the  fibrous  hairs)  is  much  longer  than  in  the  "  upland  "  variety, 
and  it  is  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  thread,  and  the  finer 
sorts  of  lace  and  cambrics,  while  the  upland  species  with  shorter 
"  staple  "  is  more  frequently  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse 
clothing  stuffs.  The  name  "  sea-island  "  comes  from  the  fact  that 
this  cotton  was  first  cultivated  in  the  United  States  on  the  low,  sandy 
islands  that  fringe  the  shores  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  ;  this 
locality  still  produces  the  best  long-staple  cotton  of  the  United 
States.  The  soil  and  atmosphere  along  the  coast  influence  the 
development  of  this  variety  of  cotton  ;  it  deteriorates  when  grown 
in  the  interior. 

From  the  field  the  cotton  is  taken  to  the  "  gin,"  a  machine  for 
separating  the  fiber  from  the  seed.  From  the  gin  it  is  packed 
in  bales,  averaging  about  500  pounds  each ;  next  it  is  shipped  to 
the  market  towns  where  it  is  sold  by  the  cotton  brokers,  on  com- 
mission, to  the  purchasing  agents  of  buyers  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  Formerly  the  cotton  mills  were  located  for  the  greater 
part  in  New  England  and  the  middle  States,  but  now  a  great  num- 
ber of  mills  have  started  throughout  the  southern  States,  and  over 
1,000,000  bales  of  cotton  a  year  are  being  used  directly  in  the 
cotton-belt. 

The  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1899  exceeded  the  crop 
of  1866  by  7,045,584  bales,  representing  an  increase  of  over 
17,000,000  acres  of  the  area  under  cotton.  The  world's  con- 
sumption of  cotton  for  1900-1901  amounted  to  13,593,000  bales 
(500  pounds  each),  more  than  10,000,000  of  which  were  produced 
in  the  United  States.  The  principal  cotton-producing  states  (those 
of  over  1,000,000  bales)  are  Texas,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  and 
Alabama,  followed  more  or  less  closely  by  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina, Arkansas,  Indian  Territory,  Louisiana,  and  Tennessee.  Vir- 
ginia, Utah,  Oklahoma,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Kansas,  and  Florida 
also  produce  some  cotton. 


TO4  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

78.  Flax  and  Hemp.  —  These  are   plants   the    stalks  of  which 
yield  a  fiber  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  various  materials 
such  as  linen,   bagging,  rope,  cordage,  and  sailcloth.      They  are 
produced  for  fiber  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  United  States.     Flax 
in  the  United  States  is  grown  chiefly  for  its  seeds  which  yield  the 
well-known  "  linseed   oil,"  used  in  the  mixing  of    paints  and  in 
varnishes.     The  cake  left  after  the  oil  has  been  pressed  out  is 
used  as  a  food  for  cattle.     Cotton  seed  likewise  yields  an  oil  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  arts,  the  residual  cake  being  also 
used  in  fattening  cattle    and  fowls.     The    ground  flaxseed  forms 
linseed  meal,  much  used  in  medicine.     The  flaxseed  product  for 
the  whole  world  in  1900  amounted  to  over  64,000,000  bushels,  of 
which   the  United   States  furnished  nearly  one-third.      Hemp  is 
chiefly  grown  in  Kentucky,  but   has  little  commercial  value ;  its 
chief  use  is  in  the  place  of  jute  for  cordage.     The  cost  of  land, 
however,  and  the  heavy  labor  attending  its  reaping  and  "  break- 
ing "  preclude  the  present   cultivation  of   hemp   on  an  extensive 
scale,  though  there  is  a  prospect  that  it  may  be  developed  on  new 
lines  by  the  use  of  more  suitable  varieties,  better  machinery,  and 
improved  methods  of  cultivation. 

III.     FOREST    PRODUCTS. 

79.  Important  Forest  Trees   and  their   Distribution.  —  We  have 
already  considered  the  forests  in  their  general  effects  (Chapter  III)  ; 
it  remains  under  this  head  to  consider  forests  as  a  timber-pro- 
ducing crop.     The  forest  trees  of   the  United   States  belong  to 
two  distinct  groups   or  classes :   (i)   the    evergreens  or  conifers, 
having  needle-shaped    leaves ;    and  (2)  the    deciduous    or  broad- 
leafed  trees.     The  latter  are  often  distinguished  from  the  former 
by  the  term  "  hardwood"  trees,  because  of  the  harder  and  more  dense 
character  of  the  woody  tissue.     To  the  first  group  belong  all  the 
different  varieties  of  pine,  spruce,  fir,  and  hemlock,  while  to  the 
second  belong  the  other  forest  trees  of  the  country,  as  oaks,  chest- 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products  105 

nuts,  walnuts,  hickories,  ashes,  maples,  etc.  Broadly  speaking,  the 
evergreens  or  conifers  characterize  the  more  northern  region  of 
the  country  —  the  spruce  and  fir  forests  of  northern  New  England 
and  the  "  pineries  "  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  are 
illustrations  of  this  fact.  A  distinction  is  to  be  made  in  the  use  of 
the  terms  "  timber  "  and  "  lumber."  Timber  is  collectively  the  trees 
themselves  and  their  unsawed  logs  after  being  felled  ;  while  lumber, 
strictly  speaking,  means  the  same  material  sawed. 

Of  the  pines  there  are  a  number  of  species,  valuable  both  on 
account  of  their  timber  and  for  the  protecting  effects  of  their 
shade  in  relation  to  the  soil  and  to  the  water  supply  of  streams. 
The  white  pine,  the  most  important  conifer  in  the  United  States, 
is  abundant  throughout  the  northern  tier  of  states,  reaching  its 
best  development  in  the  region  about  the  Great  Lakes.  Its  wood 
is  soft  and  light,  easily  worked  and  free  from  resin.  It  is  used 
in  immense  quantities  for  lumber.  This  tree  grows  best  in  light, 
sandy  soils  of  good  depth,  and  under  these  conditions  it  is  of  rapid 
growth.  The  best  quality  of  pine  lumber  is  from  trees  at  least  one 
hundred  years  old.  The  white  pine  extends  southward  to  the 
mountains.  The  red  or  Norway  pine  has  a  similar  range,  reaching 
its  best  development  from  Michigan  to  Minnesota.  These  two 
trees  form  the  pineries  of  this  region.  Red  pine  is  lighter,  harder, 
and  stronger  than  white  pine,  but  much  more  resinous.  It  is 
handled  in  commerce  with  the  white  pine. 

In  the  middle  and  southern  States  are  several  species  of  pine, 
valuable  for  their  timber  and  also  for  the  resin  which  they  contain  ; 
from  the  resin  is  manufactured  commercial  turpentine,  tar,  and  pitch. 
These  include,  among  other  species,  the  yellow  and  the  long-leaf 
pines.  On  the  western  Pacific  Slope  the  sugar  pine  is  quite 
similar  to  the  white  pine,  and  is  used  for  the  same  purposes. 

The  spruces  are  chiefly  used  for  wood  pulp  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  and  for  lumber.  They  are  mainly  northeastern  in 
their  distribution.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  and  on  the 


iOO  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Pacific  Slope  the  Douglas  spruce  or  Oregon  pine  is  an  important 
source  of  lumber.  The  two  species  of  hemlock  from  the  northeast 
and  the  northwest  sections  of  the  country  produce  lumber  of 
second  grade.  The  bark  of  the  northeastern  species  is  an  im- 
portant agent  used  in  tanning. 

In  the  southern  States  the  bald  cypress,  growing  in  swamps,  forms 
an  important  source  of  lumber.  The  western  larch,  or  tamarack, 
is  used  to  some  extent  in  the  region  where  it  grows.  In  the 
eastern  United  States  the  red  juniper,  cedar,  or  savin,  as  it  is 
differently  called,  is  used  for  a  number  of  purposes,  one  of  which 
is  in  the  making  of  lead  pencils.  The  yellow  cedar  and  the  red- 
wood, both  from  the  Pacific  Slope,  are  a  valuable  source  of  lumber. 

Among  the  hardwood  or  deciduous  trees,  the  various  species 
of  oak  are  conspicuous  for  their  usefulness.  The  white  oak  of  the 
central,  northern,  and  eastern  States,  supplies  a  tough,  strong,  and 
heavy  lumber,  largely  used  in  shipbuilding,  for  cooperage,  the 
making  of  agricultural  implements,  and  a  variety  of  other  purposes. 
The  tree  attains  its  best  development  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Alleghanies  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio.  In  the  southern 
States  the  swamp  chestnut,  and  cow  or  basket  oak  are  quite  the  equal 
of  the  white  oak  as  a  source  of  lumber  supply.  The  basket  oak 
reaches  its  best  development  in  the  rich  bottom  lands  of  Arkansas 
and  Louisiana.  The  tan-bark  oak,  best  developed  in  the  California 
redwood  belt,  is  chiefly  valuable  for  the  tanning  qualities  of  its 
bark.  The  black  oak,  the  red  oak,  and  the  post  oak  are  all  valuable 
species  occurring  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  two  former, 
best  developed  in  New  England,  are  also  used  for  tanning. 

The  beech  is  an  important  timber  tree,  growing  abundantly 
throughout  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

The  black  walnut,  the  shagbark  hickory,  the  pecan,  the  black 
cherry,  and  the  tulip  tree  or  yellow  poplar,  are  all  wide-ranging 
species  of  the  eastern  United  States  (some,  as  the  pecan  and  tulip, 
being  more  southerly  than  the  others),  and  their  wood  is  valuable 


io8  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  The  forests  of  the  eastern  United 
States  also  supply  lumber  from  the  ash,  maple,  elm,  and  basswood 
or  linden. 

Besides  the  species  above  mentioned  there  are  many  other  trees, 
both  conifers  and  hardwoods,  that  produce  valuable  lumber  of  the 
second  and  third  grades.1 

80.  The  Lumber  Industry.  —  As  has  already  been  said,  the  forest 
is  a  crop,  and  its  returns  will  depend  on  the  intelligence  exercised 
in  its  planting,  tending,  and  harvesting  (see  p.  29).  Millions  of 
dollars'  worth  of  lumber  is  cut  each  year  in  the  United  States  to  be 
used  at  home  and  abroad.  A  forest  is  equal  to  a  grain  crop  in 
its  importance  to  civilized  life.  We  have  but  to  look  about  us  to 
see  the  manifold  uses  of  wood  and  to  realize  that  without  it  our 
present  life  would  be  hardly  possible. 

Much  of  the  lumber  used  in  building,  comes  from  the  pine 
region  of  the  northern  States,  where  lumbering  is  one  of  the  chief 
industries.  Lumber  is  difficult  of  transportation,  and  in  many 
regions  natural  conditions  are  taken  advantage  of  in  getting  it  out 
of  the  woods,  and  starting  it  on  its  journey  to  the  markets.  The 
deep  snows  in  the  northern  woods  are  of  great  advantage  to  the 
lumberman,  for  during  the  winter  the  logs  can  be  more  easily 
hauled  out.  The  rafting  of  logs  on  the  upper  courses  of  the 
rivers  during  the  spring  freshets  was  at  one  time  extensively 
practiced.  The  chain  of  Great  Lakes  forms  a  highway  for  the 
movement  of  lumber  from  the  pine  region.  Formerly  the  saw 
mills  were  run  by  the  water  power  of  the  streams,  and  the  logs  had 
to  be  hauled  or  floated  to  them  to  be  worked  up ;  but  with  the 
increase  of  railroad  facilities,  and  the  improvements  in  machinery, 
steam  saw  mills  are  now  set  up  in  the  woods  and  the  logs  worked 
up  near  the  lumbering  operations. 

The  United  States  not  only  produces  enough  wood  for  its  own 
consumption,  but  exports  a  vast  quantity  as  well.  In  1900  the 
1  Yearbook  of  Agriculture  for  1897,  pp.  644-669. 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products 


109 


value  of  the  lumber  export  amounted  to  more  than  thirty-seven 
millions  of  dollars,  and  of  wood  manufactures  to  over  ten  millions 
more.  This  export  was  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

IV.  OTHER  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS 

81.  Tobacco.  —  The  tobacco  of  commerce  is  the  dried  leaves  of 
a  plant  belonging  to  the  same  family  as  the  white  potato.  It  is  a 
native  of  America,  where  it  was  found  under  cultivation  and  in  use 
by  the  native  peoples 
at  the  time  of  the  dis- 
covery. The  plant 
is  now  widely  grown 
throughout  the 
warmer  regions  of 
the  world.  A  crop 
of  tobacco  has  an 
impoverishing  effect 
upon  the  soil,  reduc- 
ing its  fertility  in  a 
short  time  unless  the 


The  Tobacco 
Producing  Section. 

of  the 
United  States      a 

SCALE  OF  MILES. 
SO  100     200      .300 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  TOBACCO  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


proper  means  are 
taken  to  enrich  the 
land  by  fertilizers. 
A  number  of  varie- 
ties of  the  plant  are 
cultivated,  each  adapted  to  peculiarities  of  soil  and  climate,  and 
differing  widely  from  one  another  in  the  quality  of  their  leaf. 

From  the  returns  of  the  Twelfth  Census  (1900)  upwards  of 
9,574,000  acres  of  land  in  the  United  States  are  under  tobacco. 
Kentucky  is  the  leading  tobacco-producing  state,  both  in  the 
amount  produced  and  in  the  area  under  cultivation.  In  1900  the 
domestic  tobacco  consumed"  and  exported  amounted  to  upward  of 
668,000,000  of  pounds.  Though  widely  grown  throughout  the 


HO  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

United  States,  the  regions  of  greatest  tobacco  cultivation  and  larg- 
est production  are  Kentucky,  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Ohio,  and 
Wisconsin.  In  Louisiana  the  famous  perique  tobacco  is  grown, 
principally  in  the  St.  James  Parish.  The  tobacco  from  each  of 
these  different  sections  has  its  own  peculiar  qualities  and  its 
special  uses  in  manufacture. 

82.  Hops.  —  The  hops  of  commerce  are  the  flowers  of  a  climb- 
ing plant  largely  used  to  impart  the  bitter  flavor  to  malt  liquors. 
In  1899  the  hop  production  of  the  world  amounted  to  1,286,460 
bales  (180  pounds  each),  of   which  the  United  States  furnished 
235,300  bales  (latest  statistics  available).      Hop  production,  like 
that  of  tobacco,  has  a  deteriorating  effect  on  soils.      The  chief 
hop-growing  states  are  New  York,  Oregon,  California,  and  Washing- 
ton.    The  Pacific  coast  production  has  steadily  increased  during 
the  past  five  years,  while  that  of  New  York  has  decreased.    Austria, 
England,  and  Germany  are  the  largest  hop-growing  countries  of 
Europe. 

83.  Plants  that  might  be  cultivated  in  the  United  States.  —  In  the 
eighteenth  century  the  cultivation  of  the  indigo  plant  was  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  southern  States  and  considerable 
quantities  of  indigo  were  manufactured,  but  the  industry  gradually 
declined,  and  has  disappeared.     The  cultivation  of  indigo  might 
be  again  introduced. 

The  tea  plant  can  be  grown  in  the  United  States  in  a  region 
where  the  temperature  rarely  falls  below  25°  F.,  and  never  below  zero, 
and  where  a  sufficient  rainfall  is  assured.  Even  with  the  abundant 
rainfall  of  the  South  Atlantic  States,  however,  irrigation  must  be  re- 
sorted to.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  conduct- 
ing a  series  of  experiments  in  tea  growing  at  Pinehurst  plantation, 
South  Carolina,  which  bid  fair  to  be  a  success.  The  conclu- 
sions are  that  tea  culture  can  be  made  profitable  in  the  United 
States  in  two  ways :  (i)  by  conducting  it  on  the  scale  of  the 
Pinehurst  experiment ;  and  (2)  by  cultivation  in  the  garden  for 


Resources:    Vegetable  Products  in 

home  use.1  The  cultivation  of  the  opium  poppy  has  been  at- 
tempted in  some  sections  of  the  United  States,  but  the  high  price 
of  labor  renders  its  production  under  present  conditions  unprofit- 
able. Egyptian  cotton  of  a  superior  quality  has  been  grown  in  this 
country.  The  date  palm  is  now  being  raised  experimentally  in 
Arizona ;  no  doubt  the  cultivation  of  many  other  vegetable  prod- 
ucts will  be  introduced  into  the  United  States. 


SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

58.  Distinguish  between  the  earlier  use  of  the  word  "corn"  and  the  current 
use  in  United  States.     What  is  the  appropriateness  of  the  title  "King  Corn"  ? 

59.  State  the  climatic  conditions  under  which  different  varieties  of  wheat  (in- 
cluding macaroni)  may  be  grown. 

60.  Compare  the  increase  of  cereal  production  in  the  United  States  with  the 
increase  of  population.     (1850-1900,  Twelfth  Census.) 

61.  Is  buckwheat  a  cereal  ?     What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  ? 

62.  Ascertain  the  total  value  of  the  hay  crop  for  1900.     Compare  it  with  the 
value  of  other  leading  products. 

63.  "Describe  the  sugar   trade  of  the  world,  having  regard  to  the  various 
sources  of  raw  sugar,  the  position  of  the  refineries,  and  the  degree  to  which  each 
of  the  chief  countries  is  an  importer."     Contrast  the  total  world's  production  of 
cane   and   beet   sugar.       (Monograph    of  Bureau   of   Commerce   and   Finance, 
Treasury  Department,    The    World's  Sugar  Production  and  Consumption,  see 
p.  205.) 

64.  In  the  total  value  of  exports  from  the  United  States,  how  does  cotton  com- 
pare with  other  leading  commodities  ? 

65.  Enumerate  the  principal  vegetable  fibers  for  the  textile  industries.     Select 
one  and  write  a  brief  account  of  its  production,  uses,  and  trade. 

66.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  (Report  1901)  says  that  the  United  States  is 
paying  millions  of  dollars  annually  for  productions  of  the  tropics  that  might  be 
grown  within  her  own  territory  without  interfering  with  industries  already  estab- 
lished.    Discuss  this  statement  with  thought  of  its  bearing  on  the  future  trade  of 
the  United  States. 

67.  Take  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  and  fill  in  the  principal  vege- 
table products  of  the  different  regions. 

l  Bulletin  No.  61,  Tea,  Culture^  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 


H2  The  Geography  of  Commerce 


Books  to  be  Consulted 

**  Publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  and 
Bulletins. 

*  Twelfth  Census,  Reports  on  Agricultural  Products. 
Crookes,  The  Wheat  Problem,  New  York  and  London  ;  1900. 
Stevenson,  The  Trees  of  Commerce.     London  edition. 

*  Rocheleau,  Products  of  the  Soil.    Vol.  II  of  Great  American  Industries.    Flani- 

gan  Company,  Chicago.     Elementary,  but  a  good  introduction. 
**  Yeats,  Natural  History  of  the  Raw  Materials  of  Commerce,  Part  II,  London. 
Philip  &  Son. 

*  Edgar,  The  Story  of  a  Grain  of  Wheat,  New  York ;   1903. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

RESOURCES  :    ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 

84.  Cattle  and  Dairy  Products.  —  The  history  of  extensive  cattle 
raising  in  the  United  States  is  a  part  of  the  westward  movement 
of  population.  The  mixed  breeds  of  cattle  that  originated  on  the 
eastern  seaboard  from  the  stock  of  the  early  English,  Dutch,  and 
Swedish  settlers,  gradually  improved  as  more  abundant  pasturage 
opened  westward.  Cattle  raising  on  a  large  scale  must  always  be 
outside  the  older  settled  districts.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  prairies  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  basins 
were  the  great  grazing  grounds,  and  it  was  here  that  the  native  stock 
showed  its  first  marked  improvement.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
latter  half  of  that  century  the  Great  Plains  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
for  ages  the  pasture  land  of  the  immense  bison  herds,  were  invaded 
by  the  cattlemen,  who  first  opened  up  these  vast  grazing  "  ranges  " 
from  Montana  to  Texas.  Subsequent  to  tfeis  invasion,  was  the 
building  of  the  railroad  and  the  establishment  of  a  market  for  the 
western  stock  in  the  more  densely  populated  districts  of  the  East. 
At  first  it  was  only  a  question  of  home  consumption;  but  with 
improvements  in  the  means  for  the  shipment  and  preservation,  a 
market  was  created  for  American  meat  products  in  the  manufac- 
turing countries  of  western  Europe.  For  a  time  the  cattle  were 
shipped  by  train  from  the  stock  yards  of  the  western  cities  to 
the  Atlantic  ports,  and  there  put  aboard  "cattle  ships"  for  the 
ocean  voyage ;  but  with  the  improvement  in  preserving  meats  by 
cold  storage,  the  shipment  of  live  cattle  has  been  largely  super- 
seded by  the  shipment  of  fresh  meat.  Refrigerator  cars  and  cold 
i  113 


H4  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

storage  compartments  of  steamships,  now  carry  most  of  the  meat 
products  transported.  Cold  storage  is  effected  either  by  chilling  or 
freezing  with  ice,  or  by  lowering  the  temperature  through  the  ex- 
pansion of  compressed  air.  Various  other  methods  of  preserving 
meat  are  also  employed,  as  drying,  smoking,  salting,  and  canning. 
Most  of  the  meat  sent  across  the  Atlantic  is  kept  by  the  expansive 
process,  but  ice  is  necessary  in  shipment  across  the  tropics. 

The  great  ranch  states  are  Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  New 
Mexico,  and  Texas,  and  these  all  lie  for  the  most  part  in  the  arid 
region,  where  crop  growing  is  confined  to  the  smaller  areas  which 
are  under  irrigation.  Notwithstanding  the  great  ranges  of  "  buffalo 
grass  "  in  the  West,  the  cattle  raised  in  the  corn-belt  are  fatter  from 
the  more  abundant  supply  of  forage  and  grain,  and  the  more  nutri- 
tious qualities  of  these  foods.  Much  of  the  prosperity  of  such 
cities  as  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  and  Omaha  has  been  from  cattle  and 
cattle  products.  In  these  cities  are  the  great  slaughter-houses  and 
the  beef-packing  establishments,  famous  throughout  the  world.  In 
the  twenty  years  from  1880  to  1900  the  average  annual  production 
of  beef  cattle  in  the  United  States  amounted  to  over  32,000,000 
head.  The  refuse  from  the  slaughter-houses  (hoofs,  horns,  bones, 
sinews,  etc.)  is  used  in  various  manufacturing  industries,  and  the 
hides  are  converted  mto  leather. 

The  dairy  industry  is  mainly  confined  to  the  corn-belt  and  the 
eastern  States.  During  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
various  breeds  of  milch  cows  were  greatly  improved  by  careful  selec- 
tion and  crossing  with  the  best  foreign  stocks.  Butter  making  also 
received  a  wonderful  stimulus  with  the  invention  of  separator 
machines,  by  which  the  cream  is  taken  from  the  milk  by  centrifu- 
gal force  —  the  heavier  milk  being  thrown  outward  from  a  rapidly 
revolving  cylinder  while  the  cream  remains  at  the  center.  Both 
the  separators  and  the  churns  are  driven  by  steam  ;  the  old  process 
of  "  setting  "  and  "  skimming  "  and  of  hand  churning  on  any  large 
scale  has  been  done  away  with.  On  January  i,  1900,  there  were 


Resources:  Animal  Products  115 

in  the  United  States  over  16,000,000  milch  cows,  representing  a 
value  of  more  than  514,000,000  dollars.  Of  this  number  New  York, 
Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  each  had  over  1,000,000  head, 
while  Pennsylvania  had  nearly  1,000,000,  and  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Texas  more  than 
500,000  each.  The  total  butter  production  for  1899  amounted  to 
about  1,430,000,000  pounds;  and  over  20,000,000  pounds,  or 
between  i  and  2  per  cent  of  this,  were  exported  in  cold  storage. 
The  production  of  cheese  amounted  to  300,000,000  pounds,  of 
which  over  38,000,000  pounds  were  exported. 

A  substance  made  from  various  animal  fats,  and  known  as  oleo- 
margarine, is  used  as  a  substitute  for  butter,  and  its  manufacture  is 
an  increasing  industry.  A  law,  however,  requires  it  to  be  marketed 
under  its  own  name  ;  its  sale  as  butter  is  unfair  to  the  consumer  and 
would  materially  affect  the  dairyman's  interests.  With  the  increased 
use  of  cold  storage  the  exportation  of  butter  should  increase,  and 
larger  foreign  markets  be  secured  for  the  United  States. 

85.  Hogs  and  Hog  Products.  —  The  United  States  is  the  largest 
hog-producing  country  in  the  world,  supplying  about  one-third  of 
the  world's  market,  and  raising  more  swine  than  Russia,  Germany, 
and  Austria-Hungary  combined.  Next  to  the  United  States  the 
countries  last  named  produce  most  largely  of  swine.  The  center 
of  the  hog-producing  industry  is  the  western  portion  of  the  corn- 
belt,  and  fully  one-third  of  the  entire  corn  crop  is  converted  into 
pork.  The  chief  pork-packing  centers  are  Omaha,  Kansas  City, 
and  Chicago,  while  Milwaukee,  Indianapolis,  Cincinnati,  Cleve- 
land, Buffalo,  Boston,  and  some  other  cities  in  the  East  also  do  a 
large  business  in  this  line.  The  meat-packing  establishments  in 
these  cities  do  more  work  in  pork  than  in  beef  or  mutton,  since 
the  latter  are  now  kept  and  transported  in  cold  storage  which  has 
done  away,  to  a  large  extent,  with  the  various  curing  methods. 
Very  little  of  the  hog  goes  to  waste.  The  fat  is  made  into  lard ; 
the  bones  are  ground  up  for  use  as  fertilizers,  or  when  burnt  to 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


charcoal  are  utilized  in  the  sugar-refining  process  ;  the  gut,  cleaned 
and  filled  with  the  finely  ground  mixture  of  beef  and  pork  and 
twisted  into  links,  constitutes  sausage  ;  the  hair  is  used  in  the 
mixing  of  mortar;  the  tough  connective  tissues,  as  the  tendons 
and  ligaments,  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  •  glue  ;  while  the 
flesh  becomes  ham,  bacon,  and  pork,  prepared  by  various  cur- 
ing processes,  —  smoking,  salting,  pickling,  etc.,  —  as  well  as 
being  cold-stored  and  used  as  fresh  meat.  The  total  of  swine  in 
the  United  States  in  1900  was  62,876,000  head,  which  was  an 
increase  of  9.5  per  cent  over  the  number  in  1890. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  SHEEP 


86.  Sheep  and  Wool.  —  The  number  of  sheep  in  the  United 
States  in  1900,  was  61,837,112  head.  By  far  the  larger  por- 
tion of  these  were  on  the  great  sheep  ranches  of  the  West.  Mon- 
tana, Wyoming,  and  New  Mexico  each  contributed  over  4,000,000 
head,  while  Colorado,  Utah,  Idaho,  and  Oregon  had  each  over 
2,000,000  head.  East  of  the  Mississippi,  Ohio  and  Michigan  are 
the  leading  sheep-raising  states,  —  the  former  having  over  4,000,- 
ooo  and  the  latter  over  2,000,000  head.1  The  chief  breed  of 
sheep  raised  in  this  country  is  the  merino  or  varieties  of  it. 

i  Twelfth  Census,  larger  than  figures  in  the  Yearbook  of  Agriculture. 


Resources:   Animal  Products  117 

The  wool  of  the  merino  is  especially  adapted  for  the  manufacture 
of  strong  staple  fabrics. 

Though  sheep  are  slaughtered  to  some  extent  in  the  great  meat- 
packing centers  and  for  local  consumption,  the  principal  use  of  the 
animal  is  for  wool.  This  material  is,  with  cotton,  chiefly  used  in 
the  textile  industries  of  the  world.  The  manufacturing  countries 
do  not  raise  enough  for  their  own  supply,  but  draw  mainly  upon 
the  great  sheep-raising  regions  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  South 
Africa,  and  Argentina.  The  United  States  imports  the  finer  grades 
of  wool  for  its  more  costly  manufactures.  Because  of  the  absence 
of  alkali  the  water  in  certain  parts  of  the  country  is  better  adapted 
for  wool  cleansing  than  in  other  districts,  and  this  has  to  some  ex- 
tent, determined  the  growth  of  woolen  industries  in  certain  sections. 
Philadelphia,  the  largest  center  of  woolen  manufacture  in  the  United 
States,  is  peculiarly  favored  in  water  that  is  suited  for  cleansing  wool. 

The  chief  materials  into  which  American  wool  enters  are  woolen 
cloths,  worsteds,  carpets,  and  felts.  Outside  of  Philadelphia  and 
the  neighboring  towns  of  Camden,  New  Jersey,  and  Chester,  Penn- 
sylvania, the  New  England  towns  are  the  chief  centers  of  the 
woolen  industries.  Boston  is  the  largest  wool  market  in  the  coun- 
try. The  total  wool  production  for  the  United  States  during  1901 
amounted  to  302,502,328  pounds,  of  which  only  199,565  pounds 
were  exported.  Over  one  hundred  and  three  million  pounds,  how- 
ever, were  imported.1 

87.  Horses  and  Mules.  —  Horses  and  mules  are  the  chief  trac- 
tion and  draught  animals.  The  ox  and  the  ass  are  still  in  use, 
however,  where  the  requirements  of  work  are  not  such  as  to 
demand  a  combination  of  strength  and  quickness  of  movement  in 
a  single  animal.  The  mule  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  certain  sorts 
of  work,  and  is,  moreover,  an  immune  to  some  diseases  which 
affect  the  horse.  There  are  two  main  purposes  in  raising  horses 
in  the  United  States :  for  draught  and  farm  use,  and  for  driving 

1  From  Statistics  of  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers,  Boston,  Ma^s. 


n8  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

and  saddle  animals.     The  breeding   of  mules  is  chiefly  for  the 
supply  of  work  animals. 

The  number  of  native  horses  in  the  United  States,  on  June 
i,  1900,  amounted  to  more  than  21,000,000  head,  while  the 
number  of  mules  was  3,445,029.  Horses  and  mules  are  raised 
in  most  of  the  states,  especially  on  the  larger  farms  of  the  South  and 
West.  In  the  East  the  principal  states  producing  horses  are  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Maine,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  ;  compara- 
tively few  mules  are  raised  in  this  section.  Horses  in  the  United 
States  have  been  much  improved  for  draught  purposes  by  the  im- 
portation of  heavier  stock  from  abroad,  as  the  Clydesdale,  Norman, 
and  Percheron  breeds.  The  American  bred  horse  is  gradually 
finding  its  way  into  foreign  markets,  and  is  in  considerable  demand 
in  Great  Britain  and  other  European  countries.  A  war  between 
foreign  powers  stimulates  horse  and  mule  raising  in  the  United 
States,  as  the  large  area  of  country  and  abundant  forage  produce 
a  large  number  of  animals  of  superior  quality  at  a  lessened  cost. 
The  carcass  of  the  horse  is  not  permitted  to  go  to  waste.  The  con- 
nective tissue  is  turned  into  glue  ;  the  bones  make  fertilizer ;  the 
hair  is  used  for  upholstery,  and  the  hide  is  converted  into  leather  for 
various  purposes,  notably  for  gloves,  razor  strops,  and  shoe  uppers. 

88.  Poultry  and  Eggs.  —  The  Yearbook  of  Agriculture  for  1901 
reported  upward  of  233,000,000  chickens  on  farms  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  more  than  17,000,000  fowl  of  other  sorts,  as 
ducks,  geese,  and  turkeys.       The  value  of  eggs  produced  in  1899 
amounted  to   more  than  $144,000,000,     The  raising  and  fatten- 
ing of  poultry  is  chiefly  for  the  home  market,  but  large  exports 
of  eggs  are   made   from   the   United    States.     The   industry   has 
received  considerable  stimulus  from  the  importation  of  fine  breeds 
of  fowls,  and  by  intelligent  selection  and  crossing  on  the  part  of 
farmers  and  fanciers. 

89.  Food  Fishes  and  the  Fisheries  of  the  United  States.  —  The 
three  great  fishing  regions  of  the  United  States  are :  (i)  the  North 


Resources :  Animal  P'roducts 


119 


Atlantic  banks  and  adjacent  coast  waters  ;  (2)  the  Pacific  coast 
and  the  Columbia  River  ;  and  (3)  the  Great  Lakes.  The  most  im- 
portant species  of  food  fishes  are  the  cod,  herring,  salmon,  shad, 


FISHERIES 

OF 

EASTERN  SOUTII  AMERICA 

SCALE  OF  MILES 
0      100    500    300    400     600 


mackerel,  halibut,  sturgeon,  and  whitefish.  The  various  species  of 
fishes  congregate  in  vast  "  schools  "  at  certain  times  of  the  year  in 
order  to  spawn  or  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  bays  and  river  estuaries 
and  along  the  shallower  parts  of  the  sea  bottom.  Some  of  them, 


I2O  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

such  as  the  salmon  and  shad,  ascend  rivers  for  long  distances  to 
accomplish  this,  even  stemming  rapids  and  leaping  falls  in  follow- 
ing their  instinct  to  spawn  in  cold,  fresh  water. 

The  headquarters  of  the  Atlantic  fishing  industry  is  Gloucester, 
Massachusetts,  from  which  port  a  large  fleet  of  vessels  is  engaged  in 
cruising  the  fishing  grounds  and  the  offshore  "  banks  "  that  stretch 
from  Newfoundland  to  Cape  Cod.  (See  map.)  The  fishing  rights 
of  a  nation  extend  for  three  miles  from  shore,  beyond  which  the 
"  deep-water  fishing,"  as  it  is  called,  is  open  to  all  nations.  On  the 
fishing  grounds  of  the  banks,  the  fishermen  from  France,  Canada, 
the  United  States',  and  other  nations,  meet  and  ply  their  trade.  The 
most  important  food  fish  of  the  North  Atlantic  coasts  is  the  cod,  of 
which  vast  numbers  are  annually  caught.  Commercially  it  is  the 
most  valuable  of  all  the  food  fishes,  and  is  sold  either  fresh,  or 
salted  and  dried.  The  fishing  vessels  carry  small  boats  called 
dories,  in  which  the  crews  go  out  when  the  fishing  grounds  are 
reached,  and  catch  the  fish  with  hand  lines.  Heavy  fogs  contin- 
ually hang  over  the  banks,  and  gales  are  of  frequent  occurrence, 
making  the  fishing  in  these  parts  a  very  dangerous  business. 
The  risk  is  increased  from  the  danger  of  being  run  down  by 
steamers,  or  of  the  dories  getting  lost  from  their  vessels.  The 
larger  part  of  the  fish  are  salted  on  board  and  taken  to  port 
where  they  are  sun-dried,  and  they  are  then  ready  for  the  mar- 
ket as  "  salt  cod."  A  small  portion  have  the  bones  removed  and 
are  packed  in  boxes  as  "  boneless  cod."  The  haddock,  a  species 
closely  related  to  the  cod,  and  inhabiting  the  waters  nearer  the 
shore,  is  locally  an  important  food  fish.  The  cod  is  valuable  also 
from  the  oil  which  is  obtained  from  its  liver,  "  cod-liver  oil"  being 
of  especial  value  in  medicine.  Next  to  the  cod  the  herring  and 
the  mackerel  are  the  most  important  food  fishes.  They  are  gen- 
erally caught  nearer  the  coast  than  the  cod,  the  herring  being 
taken  in  close-meshed  nets  or  seines  which  are  set  and  hauled  by 
the  fishermen.  Both  these  fish  are  sold  salted  and  dried,  as  well  as 


Resources :   Animal  Products  12 1 

fresh.  The  small  herring  called  "  sardines,"  though  not  the  true 
sardine  (which  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean),  are  packed  in  oil 
and  salted.  This  forms  an  important  branch  of  the  fishing  industry 
on  the  Maine  coast,  and  American  sardines  are  largely  taking  the 
place  of  the  Old  World  product.  Shad  are  mainly  caught  by  sein- 
ing in  the  spring,  in  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  while  they 
are  running  up  to  spawn.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Atlantic 
salmon,  a  very  superior  food  fish,  the  flesh  of  which  is  considered  a 
great  delicacy.  •  ( 

The  main  feature  of  the  Pacific  coast  fishing  is  the  capture 
and  canning  of  several  species  of  salmon,  which  differ  from  the 
Atlantic  salmon  in  their  appearance  and  habits.  These  salmon 
are  taken  in  great  numbers  in  the  Columbia  River  while  running 
up  to  spawn  in  the  head  streams  among  the  mountains.  They  are 
also  caught  in  vast  numbers  in  more  northern  waters,  in  the  rivers 
of  British  Columbia,  and  along  the  coast  of  Alaska ;  the  salmon 
canning  industry  in  Alaska  is  very  important.  The  early  explor- 
ers found  the  Indian  peoples  along  the  Columbia  engaged  in  spear- 
ing and  catching  salmon  and  drying  them.  Catching  of  them  has 
continued  until  the  present;  they  are  caught  mostly  in  large 
traps  or  weirs  into  which  the  fish  run  and  cannot  escape,  some- 
thing after  the  manner  of  a  rat  trap,  and  also  by  "  wheels  "  which 
scoop  the  fish  out  of  the  water.  Many  large  factories  have  long 
been  established  on  the  Columbia,  where  salmon  are  cooked  and 
canned  and  sent  out  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Much  fresh  salmon 
from  this  region  is  also  shipped  by  refrigerator  cars. 

The  principal  fish  of  the  Lakes  are  the  whitefish,  the  Lake  trout, 
and  the  sturgeon.  Little  fishing  is  now  done  in  Lake  Ontario,  the 
commercial  Lake  fishing  being  wholly  west  of  the  Niagara  River. 
A  large  industry  in  sturgeon  is  in  the  preparation  of  "caviare" 
from  the  salted  roe  or  eggs. 

The  eastern  cities  and  coast  towns  of  the  United  States  are 
collectively  the  greatest  fish  market  in  the  world.  The  United 


122  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

States  Fish  Commission  is  actively  engaged  in  looking  after  the 
fishing  interests  and  industries  of  the  country,  improving  the  con- 
ditions of  the  important  fishes  in  the  matter  of  their  food  supply 
and  reproduction.  The  government  has  also  established  fish 
hatcheries  at  various  convenient  places.  The  small  species  of  fish 
which  swarm  on  our  coasts,  and  which  are  fed  upon  by  the  cod  and 
other  food  fishes,  are  under  government  protection. 

Along  the  rocky  shores  of  New  England,  lobster  catching  and 
canning  form  a  very  important  industry.  The  oyster  and  clam 
are  commercially  the  most  important  shellfish  of  the  United 
States  coasts.  Oyster  culture  is  mainly  carried  on  along  the  bays 
of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  to  some  extent  southward  along 
the  Atlantic  shores.  Here  there  are  grown  in  immense  beds,  in  the 
shallow  waters  of  estuaries  and  bays,  the  largest  and  finest  oysters 
in  the  world.  Baltimore  is  an  important  oyster  center,  and  does  a 
big  canning  business  to  supply  the  interior  cities  and  towns. 

Though  once  an  important  industry,  whale  fishing  and  the 
marketing  of  the  products,  has  gradually  declined.  This  has  come 
from  the  growing  scarcity  of  whales  and  the  introduction  of 
petroleum  and  other  products  as  celluloid,  steel,  and  rubber,  which 
have  almost  entirely  taken  the  place  of  whale  oil  and  whalebone. 
To-day  comparatively  few  whales  are"  caught,  and  these  mostly  in 
Baffin  Bay  and  Bering  Sea.  The  right  or  Greenland  whale  inhabits 
the  Arctic  seas ;  it  is  the  species  that  supplies  the  whalebone  (a 
horny  substance  from  the  upper  jaw)  and  train  oil  from  the  fat  or 
blubber  under  the  skin.  The  sperm  whale,  a  native  of  the  south- 
ern oceans,  yields  sperm  oil  (a  valuable  lubricant  for  machinery) 
and  spermaceti  (a  mass  of  white  substance  found  in  a  large  cavity 
of  the  skull),  which  is  used  as  the  basis  for  ointments  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  sperm  candles.  The  principal  ports  now  engaged 
in  whaling  are  Dundee,  in  Scotland,  and  San  Francisco  in  the 
United  States. 

90.    Sponges.  —  The   sponge  is  a   colony   of   animals  of   a  low 


Resources :  Animal  Products  123 

grade  of  organization,  inhabiting  the  waters  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  world.  The  whole  mass  or  colony  is  fastened  to  the  sea  bottom 
at  a  varying  depth  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet.  In  the 
shallow  waters  of  the  Florida  grounds,  sponges  are  torn  loose  by  a 
three-pronged  fork.  The  commercial  sponge  is  the  dried  fibrous 
skeleton  or  framework  of  the  colony,  from  which  the  jellylike 
living  matter  which  formed  its  body  has  been  rotted  away.  Most 
of  the  sponges  of  commerce  come  from  the  Mediterranean  region. 
A  considerable  fishery,  however,  is  carried  on  in  the  waters  about 
Florida  and  the  Bahamas. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

68.  Contrast  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres  in  the  supply  of  native 
animals  capable  of  domestication.     Make  a  similar  comparison  for  the  supply  of 
indigenous  plants.     (See  Shaler,  Nature  and  Man  in  America,  p.  145.) 

69.  Discuss  the  economy  of  nature  by  which  mineral  matter  in  the  sea,  feeds 
vegetable  life,  which  nourishes  a  lower  order  of  animal  life,  which  is  fed  upon  by 
a  higher  order  of  marine  animals,  which  are  in  their  turn  food  for  men.     Apply 
the  same  method  of  reasoning  to  soil  constituents,  grass,  cattle,  and  men. 

70.  Compare    the    relative  proportion   of  vegetable  to   animal   commercial 
products  from  the  sea,  with  the  proportion  of  these  upon  the  land. 

71.  Indicate  how  the  cattle  and  meat  trade  of  the  present  day  are  largely  de- 
pendent upon  certain  inventions  and  scientific  discoveries. 

72.  What  are  the  special  qualities  of  the  merino  wool  ?    How  and  where  were 
these  qualities  secured  and  how  have  they  been  introduced  into  the  United  States? 

73.  What  are  the  chief  by-products  of  the  meat-packing  industries  ? 

74.  What  are  the  principal  animal  oils  and  what  are  their  uses  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**  Publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Yearbook  and 
Bulletins  of  Bureau  of  Animal  Industries. 

*  Twelfth  Census  Reports,  Animal  Products,  Part  I  of  Agriculture. 

**  Yeats,  Natural  History  of  the  Raw  Materials  of  Commerce,  Part  III.     London, 
Philip  &  Son. 

*  Simmonds,   Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea.     New   York,  Appleton   &   Co. 

Animal  Products,  Their  Preparation,  Uses  and  Value.     London,  Chapman 
&  Hall. 


CHAPTER   IX 

INTERNAL  COMMERCE   OF  THE  UNITED    STATES 

91.  The  Basis  of  Internal  Commerce.  —  Two  facts  are  necessary 
to  explain  the  exchange  of  goods  :  differences  in  aptitudes  and  in- 
clinations of  men,  and  differences  in  the  regions  where  men  live. 
These  may  be  termed,  in  brief,  differences  in  skill,  and  differences  in 
locality.     Local  trade  grows  most  largely  out  of  the  first,  international 
trade  out  of  the  second. 

No  other  country  is  so  well  adapted  to  the  support  of  its  population 
as  is  the  United  States.  Wide  diversities  in  soil,  climate,  and  topog- 
raphy, were  noted  in  Chapter  V ;  there  are  also  marked  differences 
in  the  tastes  and  powers  of  the  people  in  the  several  sections.  Indus- 
trially the  United  States  is  like  a  number  of  nations  rather  than  one 
nation.  Differences  in  the  inhabitants,  and  in  the  resources  and  pro- 
ductions of  the  several  parts  of  the  country  have  tended  to  make  trade, 
and  this  has  been  further  increased  from  the  comparative  nearness  of 
the  different  areas  with  facilities  for  the  transfer  of  goods.  Natural 
highways,  such  as  rivers  and  lake  chains,  extend  in  various  directions, 
affording  easy  means  of  transportation.  The  different  regions  have 
been  bound  together  by  the  most  extensive  system  of  railroads  in  the 
world.  (See  p.  386.)  Thus  there  has  come  about  within  the  United 
States,  trade  of  great  variety  and  extent. 

92.  Distribution  of  Trade  and  Manufacture.  —  Population  is  drawn 
to  the  centers  of  trade  and  manufacture.     The  location  of  these  cen- 
ters is  largely  determined  by  geographic  conditions,  which  are  mainly 
to  be  resolved  into  :  raw  material  supply,  power  facilities,  and  trans- 
portation facilities.     In  the  early  history  of  the  country  the  location 
of  an  industry  was  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  local  sources  of 

124 


PRODUCTIVE  AREAS 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES 

SHOWING- 
PREDOMINANT  AND  MINOR 
INDUSTRIES. 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


101°  Longitude        West 


from        Greenwich  93 


Internal  Commerce  of  the   United  States  125 

power.  Thus  New  England  became  a  region  of  manufacture  largely 
because  of  its  abundant  water  power ;  but  with  the  advent  of  steam- 
driven  machinery  the  manufacturing  industries  spread  out  over  wider 
and  wider  areas,  conditioned  only  by  the  facilities  for  transportation 
and  the  proximity  of  coal  and  iron.  Another  factor  determining 
the  location  of  special  industries  is  the  presence  of  a  raw  product 
available  for  manufacture.  Places  like  Minneapolis  grew  up  as  a 
result  of  the  presence  of  water  power  (St.  Anthony's  Falls)  in  prox- 
irdty  to  the  pine  belt,  the  saw  mill  being  the  first  industry  in  the 
region.  Transportation  facilities  have,  however,  extended  the  indus- 
tries of  the  region,  the  chief  feature  to-day  being  flour  milling,  as  a 
result  of  the  nearness  of  the  hard-wheat  belt,  though  water  is  no  longer 
the  only  source  of  power.  Pittsburg  was  at  first  a  disbursing  center 
for  the  Ohio  traffic;  but  with  the  utilization  of  the  coal  and  iron  in  the 
region  it  became  a  modern  vulcan  in  the  steel  and  iron  industry. 
Birmingham,  Alabama,  prior  to  its  great  boom  as  the  result  of  the 
discovery  of  coal  and  iron  deposits,  was  the  site  of  a  cotton  plantation. 
The  industrial  history  of  the  country  is  a  record  of  the  distribution 
of  manufactures  from-  certain  productive  centers  where  available 
power  compelled  localization,  and  where  difficulties  of  transportation 
narrowed  the  industries  largely  to  the  use  of  raw  materials  immediately 
at  hand.  To-day  no  manufacturing  industry  is  absolutely  restricted 
to  any  particular  region,  though  certain  manufactures  predominate 
and  give  color  and  character  to  certain  regions,  partly  as  a  result  of 
existing  physical  conditions,  and  partly  as  a  result  of  practices  in- 
herited from  earlier  times.  New  England  is  preeminently  a  region  of 
general  manufacture,  as  a  result,  not  only  of  its  original  water  power 
facilities,  but  of  its  seaboard  position  as  well,  —  raw  cotton  from 
southern  ports  being  brought  to  its  mills  through  an  extensive  coastwise 
traffic.  The 'Middle  Atlantic  Slope  is  a  region  of  general  manufac- 
ture, first  because  of  its  river  facilities,  for  both  navigation  and  water 
power,  and  later  from  its  close  proximity  to  the  coal  and  iron  of  the 
Appalachian  region.  The  iron  and  coal  of  the  southern  Appalachians 


126 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


are  rapidly  changing  the  South  from  a  purely  agricultural  region  into 
one  of  manufacture.  The  region  of  greatest  manufacture  lies  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  while  the  vast  extent  of  western  territory  is 
given  up  mainly  to  crop  growing,  stock  raising,  and  mining  operations. 
It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  geographical  center  of  agriculture 


16 

90 
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50                         rS60                        1870                        1880                         189O                        19 

oo 

5,000 
4,000 
3,000 
2,000 
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INCREASE  OF  COTTON 
PRODUCTION  COMPARED  WITH 
INCREASE  OF  POPULATION 

UNITED  STATES 

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50                        1860                         1870                       1880                         189O                        19OO 

keeps  in  advance  of  the  center  of  population.  In  the  westward 
movement  the  center  of  manufacture,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  the 
rear  of  the  center  of  population,  being  located  (1900)  somewhat  to  the 
northeast  of  Columbus,  Ohio.  (See  map  page  95.) 

93.   Population    and    Trade.  —  Purely    agricultural    regions     are 
sparsely  peopled  as  compared  with  manufacturing  districts;  the  better 


Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States  127 

chance  for  work,  and  the  profits  of  trade,  increasing  the  population  of 
the  latter  at  the  expense  of  the  former.  The  larger  the  population  of  a 
country,  the  greater  is  likely  to  be  the  demand  for  variety  of  manufac- 
tures. At  the  same  time,  in  large  populations  there  is  usually  the  best 
chance  for  the  development  of  inventive  genius,  since  a  great  diversity 
of  mind  exists  as  the  result  of  the  commingling  of  many  different 
individual  elements.  Without  this  vital  factor  our  industry  could 
never  have  attained  its  present  development,  notwithstanding  the 
abundance  of  natural  resources.  The  invention  of  labor-saving 
machinery  has  increased  the  output  and  reduced  the  cost  of  manu- 
factures of  all  sorts. 

94.  Reasons  for  the  Localization  of  Industries.  —  Certain  factors 
are  recognized  as  influencing  the  localization  of  various  industries. 
Among  the  causes  for  localization,  seven  are  enumerated  in  the  Twelfth 
Census1  as  follows  :  (i)  proximity  of  raw-material  supply;  (2)  readily 
accessible  markets;  (3)  presence  of  water  power;  (4)  favorable  cli- 
mate ;  (5)  availability  of  labor ;  (6)  availability  of  capital ;  (7)  the 
momentum  of  an  early  start.  The  first  four  of  these  are  distinctly 
geographical  causes,  while  the  three  remaining  ones  are  more  or  less  de- 
termined by  the  first  four.  The  data  for  these  observations  are  based 
on  the  relative  values  of  an  industry  in  a  state  or  city  as  compared 
with  the  total  value  of  the  same  industry  for  the  United  States  at  large. 

Fifteen  different  industries  are  selected  to  illustrate  the  principle. 
For  example,  it  is  shown  that  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments is  localized  chiefly  in  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  New  York,  and  fur- 
ther, that  it  has  increased  remarkably  in  Illinois,  and  has  declined  in 
Ohio  and  New  York.  The  factors  operating  in  the  localization  of  this 
industry  are  first,  the  situation  in  the  heart  of  the  great  agricultural 
section,  making  a  ready  market.  This  fact  has  caused  the  move- 
ment of  the  agricultural  implement  industry  from  New  York  west- 
ward on  account  of  the  cost  of  transporting  the  finished  goods.  A 
second  fact  is  the  nearness  of  the  Ohio  and  Illinois  districts  to  ex- 

1 F.  S.  Hall,  The  Localization  of  Industries.    Census  Bulletin. 


128  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

tensive  hardwood  forests,  while  a  third  factor  is  the  nearness  of  the 
iron  supply. 

The  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  is  another  industry  largely  local- 
ized ;  Massachusetts  is  credited  with  upward  of  44  per  cent  of  the 
total  United  States  factory  output  in  1900.  The  establishment  of 
the  industry  goes  back  to  the  early  days  of  the  colony,  as  a  result 
of  the  centering  of  population  in  New  England,  and  also  from  the 
fact  that  the  largest  production  of  leather  was  in  that  section.  The 
industry  drew  capital  and  expert  labor  (hand  workers)  and  has 
continued  by  virtue  of  the  momentum  of  an  early  start. 

Massachusetts  shows  over  32  per  cent  of  all  the  cotton  goods  manu- 
factured in  the  country;  this  is  a  result  of  the  early  utilization  of 
water  power  and  the  presence  of  a  moist  climate.  Its  supremacy  to- 
day is  clearly  due  to  the  advantages  of  an  early  start.  The  southern 
States  have  advanced  in  cotton  manufacture  during  the  last  decade, 
particularly  North  and  South  Carolina,  which  show  a  combined 
increase  during  this  period  of  upward  of  two  million  spindles.  Over 
fifty  new  mills  were  completed  in  the  two  states  in  1900.  Accessibil- 
ity to  the  raw-material  supply  is  here  an  important  factor,  coupled 
with  water  power,  cheap  fuel,  and  the  comparatively  low  cost  of  living. 

Pennsylvania  produces  54  per  cent  of  all  the  iron  and  steel  of  the 
country  from  the  proximity  to  the  coal,  and  because  of  iron  ore,  and 
limestone  (flux)  deposits  of  the  Alleghany  Plateau.  In  the  early 
days  it  also  had  the  advantage  of  the  great  forests  of  the  region  for 
fuel.  The  center  of  the  industry  has  migrated  westward  from  the 
anthracite  region  of  eastern  Pennsylvania  to  the  western  part  (Con- 
nellsville  region)  and  to  eastern  Ohio  as  a  result  of  the  use  of  coke 
(a  bituminous  product)  in  the  blast  furnaces,  and  also  because  of  the 
use  of  large  quantities  of  Lake  Superior  ore.  The  increase  of  the 
industry  in  Illinois  is  the  result  of  the  great  market  for  steel  goods, 
the  supply  of  fuel  and  proximity  to  the  ore  fields. 

The  center  of  leather  manufacturing  (dependent  upon  tree  bark 
for  tanning)  has  migrated  with  the  disappearance  of  forests  in  New 


Internal  Commerce  of  the   United  States  129 

England  and  New  York  to  the  hemlock  region  of  Pennsylvania ;  of 
late  the  industry  has  shown  a  tendency  toward  a  further  westward 
movement,  following  the  cutting  away  of  the  Appalachian  forest. 
The  paper  and  wood-pulp  industry  is  likewise  dependent  upon  the 
forest  as  a  source  of  raw-material  supply,  and  also  upon  the  presence 
of  water  power  as  a  cheap  means  of  running  the  heavy  machinery 
for  manufacture.  New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  Maine  lead  in  this 
industry,  because  of  the  proximity  of  the  spruce  and  poplar  timber 
which  are  the  kinds  chiefly  used  in  wood-pulp  manufacture. 

The  centering  of  the  pottery  industries  at  Trenton,  New  Jersey, 
and  East  Liverpool,  Ohio,  is  again  the  result  of  an  early  start  due 
originally  to  local  deposits  of  clay  suitable  for  the  purpose.  The 
Trenton  potteries  found  a  market  in  the  eastern  seaboard  states, 
while  the  Ohio  potteries  supplied  the  country  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 
Both  cities  are  favorably  located  in  regard  to  river  transportation. 
Each  drew  a  large  number  of  skilled  workmen  from  the  Staffordshire 
district  in  England.  Modern  railway  transportation  has  rendered 
more  distant  clay  deposits  available,  and  the  material  is  now  brought 
to  these  centers  from  a  distance  of  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  miles. 

The  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  industry  had  its  origin  at  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  as  early  as  1818,  incident  to  the  live  stock  and  corn 
production  of  the  surrounding  region,  and  the  transportation  facilities 
of  the  Ohio  River.  The  center  has  migrated  westward  with  the  west- 
ward extension  of  the  corn-belt  and  the  cattle  ranges,  and  it  is  now  in 
Illinois ;  the  Chicago  packing  industry  has  an  output  of  over  35  per 
cent  of  the  total  United  States  product.  This  centering  of  the 
industry  rests  upon  the  fattening  power  of  the  corn-belt  food  supply, 
and  railroad  facilities  which  bring  live  stock  from  the  more  distant 
western  ranges,  as  well  as  upon  the  perfected  development  of  the 
cold-storage  process  of  shipment. 

These  illustrations  show  the  nature  of  the  localizing  process  and 
the  reasons  therefor.  The  following  table  indicates  some  of  the  chief 
industries  of  the  United  States  in  regard  to  their  localization :  — 


130 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


LOCALIZATION  OF  SPECIFIED   INDUSTRIES  BY  STATES:    SUMMARY,    1900' 


SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES 

Value  of 
products  in  the 
United  States 

States 

Value  of 
products  in  the 
state  named 

Per 
cent  of 
the 
United 
States 
in  the 
state 
named 

Collars  and  cuffs 

$15,769,132 

New  York 

$15,703,541 

99.6 

Plated  and  britannia  ware 

12,608,770 

Connecticut 

9,53^,397 

75-7 

Oysters,  canning  and  pre- 

serving 

3,670,134 

Maryland 

2,417,331 

65-9 

Leather  gloves  and  mittens 

16,721,234 

New  York 

10,854,221 

64.9 

Clocks 

7»!57,856 

Connecticut 

4,545,047 

63-5 

Coke 

35,585,445 

Pennsylvania 

22,282,358 

62.6 

Safes  and  vaults 

3*927,867 

Ohio 

2,407,655 

61.3 

Whips 

2,734,471 

Massachusetts 

1,651,221 

60.4 

Liquors,  vinous 

6,547,310 

California 

3,937,87! 

60.  i 

Brassware 

17,140,075 

Connecticut 

9,269,159 

54-1 

Iron  and  steel 

803,968,273 

Pennsylvania 

434,445,200 

54-o 

Carpets    and    rugs,    other 

than  rag 

48,192,351 

Pennsylvania 

23,113,058 

48.0 

Corsets 

14,878,116 

Connecticut 

6,846,946 

46.0 

Boots   and   shoes,  factory 

product 

261,028,580 

Massachusetts 

117,115,243 

44.9 

Agricultural  implements 

101,207,428 

Illinois 

42,033,796 

41-5 

Slaughtering     and    meat 

packing,  wholesale 

698,206,548 

Illinois 

279,842,835 

40.1 

Turpentine  and  rosin 

20,344,888 

Georgia 

8,110,468 

39-9 

Cotton,  ginning 

14,748,270 

Texas 

5,886,923 

39-9 

Liquors,  distilled 

96,798,443 

Illinois 

38,208,076 

39-5 

Glass 

56,539,712 

Pennsylvania 

22,001,130 

38.9 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods 

95,482,566 

New  York 

35,886,048 

37-6 

Silk  and  silk  goods 

107,256,258 

New  Jersey 

39,966,662 

37-3 

Silverware 

10,569,121 

Rhode  Island 

3,834,408 

36.3 

Salt 

7,966,897 

New  York 

2,698,691 

33-9 

Cotton  goods 

339,200,320 

Massachusetts 

111,125,175 

32.8 

Jewelry 

46,501,181 

Rhode  Island 

13,320,620 

28.6 

Leather,  tanned,  curried, 

and  finished 

204,038,127 

Pennsylvania 

55,615,009 

27-3 

Fur  hats 

27,811,187 

Connecticut 

7,546,882 

27.2 

Pottery,  terra    cotta,   and 

fire-clay  products 

44,363,386 

Ohio 

11,851,225 

26.8 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

127,326,162 

New  York 

26,715,628 

21.0 

1  Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII, 


Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States  13 1 

95.   Geographical   Basis  of  the  Movement  of   Commodities.  —  As 

has  already  been  stated  (Section  64),  the  entire  area  of  the  United 
States  may  be  divided  into  six  great  industrial  sections,  in  each  of 
which  certain  staple  agricultural  industries  are  fundamental  to  its 
prosperity.  To  recapitulate  briefly,  these  sections  with  their  domi- 
nant agricultural  features  are  as  follows  :  (i)  The  New  England  and 
New  York  section,  characterized  by  small  farming  and  dairying  inter- 
ests; (2)  the  corn  and  winter- wheat  belt,  lying  between  the  parallels 
of  43°  and  35°,  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  western  Kansas  and 
Nebraska;  the  raising  of  live  stock  in  this  region  is  an  essential 
feature ;  (3)  the  cotton-belt,  south  of  parallel  35°,  and  west  into 
Texas ;  (4)  the  spring-wheat  belt,  north  of  43°  and  reaching  from 
the  Lake  Region  to  Montana  and  Wyoming;  (5)  the  Plateau  States, 
with  stock  raising  and  wool  production  as  the  chief  industries ;  and 
(6)  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  largely  given  over  to  agriculture  and 
the  lumber  interests. 

The  cardinal  fact  involved  in  this  industrial  division  of  the  country 
is  that  no  one  section  is  self-sufficing,  but  each  is  dependent  upon  the 
other  sections  for  its  maintenance,  as  to  food  supply,  the  raw  mate- 
rials for  manufacture,  and  the  finished  products.  From  this  fact  there 
has  originated  a  movement  of  commodities  from  one  region  to 
another,  which  has  become  organized  into  the  extensive  internal  com- 
merce of  the  country.  The  characteristic  industry  of  each  section 
determines  the  nature  of  the  materials  entering  into  this  movement. 
Thus  the  industrial  sections,  comprising  New  England,  New  York, 
and  the  Middle  Atlantic  region,  draw  upon  all  the  other  sections 
for  food  supplies  and  raw  materials,  and  in  return,  send  out 
manufactured  products  to  the  country  at  large.  Each  section  sends 
out  its  surplus  into  the  channels  of  trade.  This  surplus  may  be 
greater  or  less  according  to  the  nature  of  the  product,  the  facilities 
for  manufacture,  and  the  population.  The  entire  wool  clip  and 
the  vast  bulk  of  the  live  stock  is  shipped  away  from  the  Plateau  sec- 
tion ;  similarly,  the  greater  part  of  the  California  fruit  finds  an  east- 


132  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

ern  market.  The  larger  portion  of  the  staple  of  the  cotton-belt  forms 
a  surplus.  The  centralizing  of  the  live  stock  and  grain  in  the  corn- 
belt  calls  for  such  a  vast  movement  that  most  of  the  great  trunk  lines 
are  concentrated  within  its  borders.  The  bulk  of  the  internal  trade 
of  the  country  is  made  up  of  the  movement  of  a  few  great  staple 
products,  —  grain,  live  stock,  cotton,  lumber,  fruits,  and  coal  and  iron. 
The  carrying  of  manufactures  is  a  small  item  in  comparison  with  the 
movement  of  these  few  staple  commodities. 

Agriculture,  stock  raising,  mining,  lumbering,  and  the  fisheries  are 
the  fundamental  or  extractive  industries,  and  form  the  basis  of  national 
prosperity.  The  outgoing  or  foreign  trade,  likewise,  depends  upon 
these  industries,  whether  the  material  exported  be  in  the  raw  state 
or  as  a  manufactured  product.  The  underlying  principle  of  internal 
commerce  is  largely  a  physiographical  one ;  the  diversity  of  products 
which  characterizes  the  different  sections  of  the  United  States  is  the 
result  of  contrasted  physical  conditions  of  the  several  regions.1 

96.  Transportation.  —  The  distribution  of  commodities  depends 
upon  transportation  facilities  which  are  largely  conditioned  by  geog- 
raphy (topography).      Rivers  and  lake  chains  are   everywhere   the 
natural  highways  of  commerce.     The  river  valley  has  always"  been  a 
line  of  travel.    Trails  lead  over  mountain  ranges  by  way  of  their  passes. 
These  trails  may  have  been  formed  originally  by  various  wild  animals, 
as  buffalo  and  deer,  followed  by  the  Indian  and  later  by  the  frontiers- 
man and  the  packhorse.     The  wagon  road  has  naturally  developed 
on  the  earlier  trail,  and  later  the  railroad  followed  the  same  line. 

The  features  of  transportation  in  the  United  States  require  some 
notice  of  river  traffic,  canals,  steam  and  electric  railroads,  wagon  road, 
and  coastwise  commerce. 

97.  River  Traffic.  —  The  natural  channel  of  the  river   must,  in 
many  instances,  be  deepened  by  dredging  and  by  dams,  and  locks 
at  various  points,  in  order  to   facilitate  shipping  movements.     For 

1  O.  P.  Austin,  Geographical  Basis  of  Internal  Commerce.  In  Monthly  Summary 
of  Commerce  and  Finance  for  January,  1901,  pp.  1629-1630. 


Internal  Commerce  of  the   United  States 


133 


this  work  the  United  States  annually  appropriates  millions  of 
dollars  (River  and  Harbor  Bill).  The  larger  rivers  of  the  United 
States  form  extensive  lines  of  waterway  for  the  movement  of  its 
internal  traffic,  and  were  very  early  utilized.  River  traffic  is  prac- 
tically continuous  by  way  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Missouri,  from  Pitts- 
burg,  Pennsylvania,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone,  on  the  border 
of  Montana.  The  Mississippi  affords  a  waterway  from  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota, and  from  Pittsburg  by  way  of  the  Ohio,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


rigable  Interior  Water  Routes 

in  which  the  water  is 
three  feet  deep  or  over. 

.SCALE  OF  MILES^ 
115      ° M  10°  ™**>   4M          1ft 


NAVIGABLE  WATERWAYS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Many  of  the  Atlantic  rivers  are  navigable  for  some  distance  inland 
(to  the  "fall-line"),  and  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  afford  traffic  facili- 
ties with  the  western  slopes  of  the  southern  Appalachians.  Trans- 
portation by  water,  though  slower,  is  much  cheaper  than  by  land, 
owing  to  economy  in  motive  power.  The  advantages  of  water  trans- 
portation are  thus  set  forth  in  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  Treasury  Bureau 
of  Statistics  :  "  With  a  few  well-known  exceptions,  the  river  and  canal 
traffic  of  the  United  States  has  been  allowed  to  stand,  in  point  of 
equipment,  very  much  where  it  was  fifty  years  ago,  while  railways 


134  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

have  shown  an  equally  wonderful  versatility  in  emancipating  them- 
selves from  their  mistakes  in  policy  and  uncommercial  methods  of 
management,  which  kill  rather  than  encourage  traffic.  One  of  the 
exceptions  in  the  development  of  river  traffic  is  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  Ohio  River  and  its  tributaries,  where  navigation  has  been  greatly 
promoted  by  the  construction  of  a  series  of  dams,  giving  the  city  of 
Pittsburg  a  deep-water  harbor  throughout  the  entire  year.  During  times 
of  high  water  barges  are  floated  down-stream  at  the  cost  of  guidance 
and  towing.  Thus,  at  an  outlay  of  about.  $1,000,000,  many  millions 
have  not  only  been  saved  each  year  in  freights,  but  markets  have 
been  retained  for  coal  and  iron  from  this  locality,  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  lost  long  since  to  other  coal-producing  and  iron- 
making  localities."1  Facts  like  the  above  serve  to  illustrate  the 
important  features  of  river  commerce. 

98.  Lake  Commerce.  —  The  chain  of  Great  Lakes  forms  a  re- 
markable highway  of  commerce,  especially  so  since  the  construction 
of  the  ship-canal  at  St.  Mary's  Falls.  Like  many  rivers,  the  Great 
Lakes  are  not  open  to  traffic  for  several  months  during  the  winter 
season  on  account  of  the  ice.  The  relation  of  the  Great  Lakes  to 
traffic  is  thus  well  described  by  O.  P.  Austin  in  his  report  on  internal 
commerce :  "  Several  factors  distinguish  the  commerce  of  the  Great 
Lakes  from  all  other  water-borne  traffic  in  which  American  vessels 
are  engaged,  not  even  excepting  the  movement  of  freights  on  the 
Mississippi  River  and  tributary  waters.  ...  In  the  first  place,  the 
carrying  trade  of  the  Great  Lakes  not  only  embraces,  almost  exclu- 
sively, raw  material,  but  is  made  up  principally  of  a  limited  number 
of  commodities.  Secondly,  it  is  to  a  great  extent  a  through  traffic  — 
that  is,  the  number  and  volume  of  cargoes  transported  from  a  lower 
to  an  upper  Lake  port,  so  called,  or  vice  versa,  greatly  exceed  the 
short  coastwise  hauls.  Coal,  both  anthracite  and  bituminous,  is 
shipped  from  the  various  ports  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie  to 
ports  on  Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan,  while  flour  and  grain,  iron 

1  See  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  January,  1901,  p.  1695. 


Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States 


135 


ore,  copper,  and  lumber  make  the  trip  from  Lake  Superior  and  Lake 
Michigan  ports  to  unloading  docks  on  Lake  Erie.  The  movement 
of  unclassified  freight,  by  no  means  an  inconsiderable  item  in  itself, 
makes  up,  to  a  very  large  extent,  the  interchange  of  commodities 
between  ports  in  close  proximity." 

Certain  Lake  ports  are  closely  related  to  areas  of  production  and 
are  consequently  the  points  at  which  staple  commodities  are  concen- 
trated. Thus,  Du- 
luth,  Superior,  Mil- 
waukee, and  Chicago 
are  points  for  a  large 
wheat  and  other  grain 
shipment.  Some  half- 
dozen  Lake  points  are 
the  chief-  centers  for 
the  shipment  of  iron 
ore.  As  regards  des- 
tination, much  of  the 
grain  reaches  the  ele- 
vators at  Buffalo  for  further  disbursement  by  rail  and  canal,  while  the 
proximity  of  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Erie  to  the  great  iron  and  steel 
manufacturing  centers  causes  most  of  the  iron  ore  to  be  unloaded  at 
a  half-dozen  ports  on  this  shore.  (See  illustration  opposite  p.  64.) 

In  the  past  twenty-one  years  —  from  1881-1902  —  the  registered 
tonnage  (net  tons)  that  passed  through  the  St.  Mary's  Canal  increased 
more  than  1500  per  cent,  while  the  total  freight  (in  net  tons)  increased 
more  than  1750  percent.  In  1902,  22,659  vessels  passed  through 
the  canal.  The  total  volume  of  freight  that  passed  through  the  canal 
in  the  same  year  amounted  to  35,961,146  net  tons.  (See  p.  147.) 

99.  Canals.  —  The  utilization  of  canals  as  a  means  of  transporta- 
tion was  begun  early  in  the  last  century.  The  navigability  of  the 
Hudson  River  from  New  York  to  Albany,  coupled  with  the  opening 
of  the  prairie  region,  led  to  the  building  of  the  Erie  Canal  which 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  LAKE  REGION 


136  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

connects  the  Hudson,  by  way  of  the  Mohawk  Valley  and  other  streams 
and  lakes,  with  the  Great  Lakes  at  Buffalo.  By  this  means  a  contin- 
uous waterway  was  opened  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  great 
interior  region,  and  a  steady  stream  of  trade  was  established  be- 
tween the  East  and  the  West.  Since  then  many  other  canals  have 
been  built,  notably  the  Champlain  Canal,  which  connects  the  Hud- 
son River  with  the  St.  Lawrence  drainage,  and  the  "  Soo  "  canals 
(ship-canals  built  by  the  United  States  and  Canada)  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  (St.  Mary's  Falls),  between  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Huron. 
The  Welland  ship-canal  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario,  in 
Canadian  territory,  affords  a  continuous  passage  by  way  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  from  the  Lakes  to  the  ocean.  Besides  those  above  men- 
tioned, many  small  canals  have  been  constructed  in  various  parts  of 
the  country. 

The  economic  effect  of  canals  is  of  vast  and  far-reaching  impor- 
tance. For  example,  the  St.  Mary's  Canal  has  not  only  affected  com- 
mercial movements,  but  has  likewise  influenced  the  movement  of 
population  and  has  affected  various  industries,  notably  that  of  iron 
and  steel.  Both  the  "Soo"  (St.  Mary's)  and  the  Suez  canals  have 
greatly  increased  the  production  of  wheat  by  facilitating  transporta- 
tion. Cheaper  rates  to  the  markets  of  Europe  have  followed  and 
large  areas  of  new  land  have  come  under  wheat  cultivation,  both  of 
which  factors  have  resulted  in  the  reduction  of  the  price  of  the  cereal, 
and  removed  in  large  measure  the  possibility  of  famines. 

100.  Railroad  Traffic.  —  At  the  present  day  the  railroad  is  the 
most  important  carrier  in  the  internal  trade  of  the  country.  As  the 
volume  of  traffic  has  increased,  freight  rates  have  tended  to  decline. 
Aside  from  the  rapid  strides  in  railroad  building  (bridge-work, 
tunneling,  rolling  of  rails,  etc.),  probably  one  of  the  most  important 
factors  in  the  development  of  the  American  railway  is  the  use  of  the 
swiveling  truck,  which  enables  the  locomotive  and  its  train  of  cars  to 
take  curves  of  comparatively  short  radii.  In  the  early  days  this  was 
an  essential  feature  in  following  the  windings  of  a  river  valley  or  in 


Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States 


137 


crossing  a  mountain  region.  The  ease  of  construction  on  the  com- 
paratively level  plains  and  prairie  lands  of  the  central  and  western 
States  was  no  small  factor  in  the  rapid  advance  of  railroading. 

The  consolidation  of  various 
railroad  lines  into  single  systems 
is  a  marked  tendency  in  the  United 
States.  A  comparatively  few  sys- 
tems hold  a  controlling  interest  in 
more  than  150,000  miles  of  rail- 
road,  or  over  three-fourths  of  the 
total  mileage  of  the  country.  The 
principal  railroad  interests  of  the 
United  States  are  thus  grouped 
into  five  great  systems,  each  of 
which  consists  of  various  lines 
formerly  independent.  Each  sys- 
tem operates  throughout  a  vast 
territory  and  controls  a  wide  area 
of  production.  Freight  was  moved 
over  the  several  lines  in  1901  as  follows :  — 


INCREASE  OF  MILES  ( 
COMPARED  WITH  IN 
POPULATION. 

UNITED  STAT 

>F  RAILWAY 
CREASE  OF 

200 
175 
150 
125 
100 
75 
50 
29 

CO 

z 

2 

ES 

^ 

i 
z 

^ 

^ 

'a) 

2 

5 

^ 

V 

i 

^£x 

tf 

/ 

^^ 

2 

s 

9*/> 

§ 

YE/ 

RS 

IBUO 


CLASS  OF  COMMODITY 

Tonnage  reported  as 
originating  on  line 

Per  cent  of 
aggregate 

Products  of  agriculture 
Products  of  animals     .... 
Products  of  mines        .... 
Products  of  forest         .... 

56,102,838 

iSMSW 

269,372,556 
60,844,933 

71,681,178 

10.76 
2.91 

5!-67 
11.67 

17.71: 

21,607,603 

4.16 

26,403,^8 

5.08 

Grand  total           .... 

521,337,833 

IOO  * 

1  Statistics  of  Railways,  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  Report,  1901. 


138 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


101.  Standard  Time  and  the  Time  Belts.  —  In  running  trains 
across  such  a  broad  stretch  of  country  as  the  United  States,  it  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  have  a  uniform  system  of  time  over 
certain  "  belts."  For  convenience  railroad  companies  have  adopted 
a  system  of  "  Standard  Time  "  by  dividing  the  United  States  from 
east  to  west  into  four  time  belts,  as  follows:  (i)  The  region  of 
Eastern  Time — reckoned  on  the  75th  meridian  ;  i.e.  when  the 
sun  is  on  this  meridian,  it  is  12  noon  for  all  places  within  this  belt,  no 
matter  what  may  be  the  "  local  time  "  of  such  places  ;  (2)  Central 
Time,  reckoned  on  the  poth  meridian  ;  (3)  Mountain  Time, 


TIME  BELTS 

reckoned  on  the  io5th  meridian;  and  (4)  Pacific  Time,  reckoned  on 
1 20th  meridian.  Each  of  these  four  meridians  runs  approximately 
through  the  middle  of  its  time  belt,  though  the  boundaries  of  the 
belt  are  irregular,  since,  for  certain  railroads  in  a  given  district, 
it  is  more  convenient  to  keep  the  same  time  than  to  change  for  a 
short  distance  into  the  next  belt.  Thus  the  eastern  belt  includes  all 
the  territory  between  the  Atlantic  coast  and  an  irregular  line  drawn 
from  Buffalo  to  Charleston ;  the  central  belt  from  this  line  west 
to  an  irregular  line  running  through  Bismarck,  North  Dakota,  to 
the  Rio  Grande  at  the  western  border  of  Texas;  the  mountain 


Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States  139 

belt  west  from  this  to  an  irregular  line  running  through  western  Mon- 
tana, Idaho,  western  Utah,  and  the  western  border  of  Arizona  ;  the 
Pacific  belt  from  this  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  is 
one  hour's  difference  between  adjacent  time  belts.  Thus,  when  it  is 
nine  o'clock  A.M.  for  all  places  in  the  eastern  time  belt,  it  is  eight 
o'clock  A.M.  for  all  places  in  the  central  time  belt,  seven  A.M.  for  all 
places  in  the  mountain  belt,  and  six  A.M.  for  all  places  in  the  Pacific 
time  belt.  In  passing  from  one  time  belt  to  the  next  in  going  west, 
watches  are  set  back  one  hour  ;  and  in  going  east  they  are  set  for- 
ward one  hour. 

The  local  or  actual  sun  time  of  a  place  differs  somewhat  from  its 
standard  time,  varying  according  to  its  distance  from  the  meridian. 
Thus  the  actual  time  at  New  York  is  four  minutes  faster  than  the 
standard. 

102.  Electric  Roads.  —  In  recent  years  the  trolley  has  become  an 
important  short-distance  carrier.     In  many  instances  it  reaches  re- 
gions into  which  the  railroad  has  not  penetrated  and  it  has  stimulated 
trade  by  the  development  of  localities  which  before  had  been  out  of 
touch  with  the  centers  of  commercial  activity.     The  chief  economic 
features  of  electric  road  are  rapid  and  cheap  transportation.     In  this 
way  they  have  cut  into  the  suburban  traffic  of  the  steam  roads.    Con- 
tinuous  trolley  transportation  is  now   in   operation   between   many 
cities  through  systems  of  connecting  lines.     The  cost  of  building  and 
maintaining   the  roadbed  is  much   less  than  in  the  case  of  steam 
roads,  and  public  highways  are  utilized  in  many  cases.      A  decided 
advantage  has  been  effected  by  the  trolley  in  developing  suburban 
life  and  preventing  the  overcrowding  of  the  large  cities.     Electric 
lines  in  various  parts  of  the  country  have  become  important  carriers 
of  market  produce,  milk,  butter,  etc.,  from  outlying  districts  to  the 
centers.      This  phase  of  their  activity  will  undoubtedly  be  of  growing 
importance  in  the  future. 

103.  Wagon  Roads.  — The  question  of  good  wagon  roads  is  a  vital 
one   in  the   problem  of  transportation.     It  has  been  demonstrated 


140  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

that  it  often  costs  more  to  move  a  ton  of  hay,  or  a  bushel  of  wheat, 
ten  miles  over  an  ordinary  country  road  than  to  transport  it  five 
hundred  miles  by  rail  or  two  thousand  miles  by  water.  Bad  roads  are 
a  menace  to  the  trade  of  a  region,  for  the  farmers  frequently  let  their 
crops  go  to  waste  from  inability  to  get  them  to  market.  As  Mr. 
Dodge  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  Inquiries  says :  "To  those  who 
follow  the  trade  reports  of  the  newspapers,  the  announcement  of  a 
rise  in  the  price  of  some  staple,  '  due  to  inability  to  market  the  crop 
on  account  of  the  impossible  condition  of  the  country  roads,'  is 
familiar  reading  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  It  has  happened 
that  the  success  or  failure  of  a  skillfully  manipulated  '  corner '  has 
depended  likewise  upon  the  dominance  of  '  King  Mud,'  and  that  the 
bottomless  state  of  rural  highways,  making  country  trade  dull  and 
wholesale  collections  slow,  has  been  responsible  for  a  serious  strin- 
gency in  the  money  market." 

The  Good  Road  Movement  that  is  now  being  pushed  in  many 
states,  aims  to  bring  before  the  public  the  advantage  of  well- 
constructed  highways,  not  only  from  an  industrial  and  purely  busi- 
ness point  of  view,  but  also  from  their  effects  on  the  general  welfare 
of  communities.  The  use  of  the  bicycle  and,  more  recently,  of  the 
automobile,  have  contributed  to  the  interest  in  the  movement  for 
good  roads. 

104.  Coastwise  Commerce. — The  carrying  of  merchandise  from 
one  port  to  another  has  always  been  an  important  feature  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  seaboard  states.  By  this  means  the  New  England  fac- 
tories gained  cheap  transportation  for  the  raw  cotton  of  the  South. 
An  increase  in  the  number  of  sailing  schooners  built  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  (notably  in  Maine)  is  an  important  commercial  fact  of  recent 
years.  This  type  of  vessel  is  the  one  most  in  use  as  a  carrier 
in  the  coasting  trade  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  seaboard,  while  the 
"  steam-driven  schooner  "  is  the  one  most  in  vogue  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Coal,  lumber,  cotton,  etc.,  are  among  the  more  important 
commodities  handled  in  this  way.  Boston  depends  upon  the  coast- 


MASSACHUSETTS  ROAD  BEFORE  IMPROVEMENT 


MASSACHUSETTS  ROAD  AFTER  IMPROVEMENT 


Internal  Commerce  of  the   United  States  141 

wise  transportation  of  coal  for  its  supply  of  fuel.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  economic  movement  of  coal  from  its  area  of  production 
is  first  toward  the  seaboard  by  the  shortest  line  of  hauling.  The  use 
of  steam  machinery  in  manipulating  sails  and  in  loading  and  unload- 
ing cargoes,  is  increasing  of  late  the  prominence  of  the  sailing  craft 
at  the  expense  of  the  steamship.1 

Only  vessels  flying  the  American  flag  can  engage  in  the  coastwise 
trade,  and  this  has  been  a  very  important  factor,  ,not  only  in  the 
development  of  the  trade  itself,  but  in  fostering  the  ship-building 
industry  on  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts.  Maine  has  always 
had  a  prominent  place  in  ship-building  for  the  coast  trade,  owing  to 
the  nearness  of  the  lumber  supply.  The  same  advantage  is  enjoyed 
by  the  states  of  Washington  and  Oregon. 

105.  The  Movement  of  Grain.  —  The  importance  of  corn  as  a  food 
for  stock  has  already  been  alluded  to  (p.  90).  Various  experi- 
ments tend  to  show  that  the  money  return  from  a  corn  crop  is  in- 
creased by  converting  it  into  fat  animals.  This  twofold  demand  for 
the  product  —  i.e.  for  stock  raising  within  the  corn-belt  and  for  ship- 
ment—  has  increased  its  importance.  If  meat  is  relatively  high,  it 
will  obviously  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  producer  to  convert  his  corn 
into  meat ;  but  if,  through  failure  of  foreign  crops  or  other  causes,  the 
value  of  corn  is  relatively  increased,  the  advantage  will  be  in  selling  it 
direct.  These  facts  have  a  definite  bearing  on  the  movement  of  the 
surplus.  Eight  or  ten  of  the  largest  primary  grain  markets  of  the 
country  are  located  in  the  corn  and  winter-wheat  belt,  and  this, 
together  with'  the  centers  of  live  stock  concentration  in  the  same  area, 
has  determined  the  centralizing  of  the  railroad  lines  in  this  section. 
The  western  half  of  the  corn- belt  is  the  area  of  greatest  production, 
while  in  the  eastern  half  are  located  the  great  centers  of  consumption. 
The  movement  is  thus  largely  an  eastern  one  for  both  grain  and  live 
stock  products. 

A  great  corn  center  like  St.  Louis  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  general 

l  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  January,  1901,  p.  1693. 


142  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

movement.  At  this  market,  in  1899,  23,300,000  bushels  of  corn  were 
received,  of  which  more  than  20,000,000  bushels  were  disbursed  as  a 
surplus.  Of  this  surplus  shipment,  over  52  per  cent  found  its  way 
to  the  markets  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  by  rail,  39  per  cent  was  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  eastern  and  southern  sections  of  the  country, 
and  only  8  per  cent  entered  into  export  trade  by  way  of  New  Orleans. 
These  facts  clearly  illustrate  the  important  place  of  home  consump- 
tion in  the  case  of  corn.1 

The  commercial  value  of  wheat  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  wholly  a 
breadstuff  and  almost  never,  like  corn,  used  as  a  stock  food.  For 
this  reason  it  enters  more  largely  into  the  world's  cereal  movement 
and  is  in  close  competition  with  the  foreign  wheat  supply,  particularly 
that  of  Russia,  India,  Australia,  and  Argentina.  The  hard-grained 
spring  wheat,  unless  concentrated  for  manufacture  at  the  great  milling 
centers  of  Minneapolis  and  Superior,  finds  its  way  into  the  channels 
of  trade,  mainly  through  Duluth  and  other  upper  Lake  ports,  to  lower 
Lake  ports,  from  which  it  is  disbursed  by  canal  and  railway  to  the 
eastern  and  seaboard  centers  of  consumption. 

The  development  of  the  milling  industry  follows  closely  upon  the 
spread  of  wheat  growing.  Not  only  the  large  mill,  but  the  small  one 
as  well,  finds  an  increasing  market  for  its  flour,  and  the  competition 
thus  involved  benefits  both  producer  and  consumer.  The  spread  of 
wheat  tends  to  widen  the  industry,  and  its  concentration  at  particular 
points  is  determined  by  the  best  facilities  for  distribution.  The 
demand  for  wheat  at  such  milling  centers  as  Minneapolis  and  other 
Minnesota  towns  causes  some  movement  of  the  grain  from  the  north- 
western area  of  Washington  and  Oregon,  as  well  as  from  Canada. 
The  extreme  northwest  is  rapidly  becoming  an  important  wheat- 
producing  section,  and  is  also  introducing  some  milling  industries  of 
its  own.  Columbia  River  and  Puget  Sound  afford  lines  of  outlet, 
and  the  surplus  of  the  crop  finds  an  export  trade  to  Asiatic  markets, 
in  addition  to  what  is  sent  to  Hawaii  and  southern  Pacific  coast  points. 
1  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  January,  1901,  p.  1635. 


Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States  143 

The  chief  centers  for  the  concentration  and  distribution  of  the 
grain  crop  of  the  United  States  are  the  large  Lake  and  river  ports 
of  the  middle  section  of  the  country.  These  are  advantageously 
situated  in  relation  to  the  corn-belt  and  wheat-producing  areas. 
There  are  eleven  principal  markets,  several  of  which  have  vast  eleva- 
tor capacity  for  storage  :  Chicago  (elevator  capacity  over  5  7,000,000 
bushels);  St.  Louis  (11,000,000  to  12,000,000  bushels);  Kansas 
City  (over  6,000,000)  ;  and  Minneapolis,  Duluth,  Superior,  Milwau- 
kee, Detroit,  Cincinnati,  Peoria,  and  Toledo.  Farther  east,  Buffalo  is 
an  important  center  of  the  Lake  grain  trade,  because  of  its  relation  to 
the  Erie  Canal  and  various  lines  of  railroad.  Most  of  the  corn  con- 
sumed at  Peoria  is  used  in  the  distillation  of  alcoholic  products. 

106.  The  Movement  of  Live  Stock.  —  Three  principal  areas  are 
sources  of  the  cattle  supply:  (i)  The  southern,  including  Texas, 
Oklahoma,  and  Indian  Territory;  (2)  the  western  ranches  of  Colo- 
rado, Wyoming,  Montana,  and  North  and  South  Dakota;  and 
(3)  the  corn-belt  states.  From  these  areas  the  cattle  are  moved 
by  train  to  the  central  markets,  which,  with  the  exception  of  Chicago, 
are  on  the  Missouri  River.  The  rate  of  concentration  at  these  cen- 
ters is  enormous.  Thus,  for  example,  at  the  five  principal  points  — 
Chicago,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  St.  Louis,  and  St.  Joseph,  upwards 
of  185,000  head  of  cattle,  466,000  hogs,  and  193,000  sheep  were 
received  in  one  week  during  the  year  1900.  Of  late  years  a  heavy 
western  movement  of  live  stock  has  also  taken  place  from  the  Rocky 
Mountain  States  to  the  Pacific  coast,  because  of  the  inflow  of  settlers 
and  the  growth  of  towns  in  the  northwest.  The  establishment  of  the 
meat-packing  industry  at  various  points  on  the  Pacific  coast  bids  fair 
ultimately  to  compete  with  the  packing  centers  of  Chicago  and  the 
Missouri  River  points.  These  meat-packing  establishments  in  the  far 
West  are  in  part  the  result  of  the  development  of  Asiatic  and  Pacific 
trade.  The  stock  movement  from  the  Mountain  States  is  thus  in 
two  directions,  eastward  and  westward,  with  a  resulting  advantage 
to  the  producer  and  a  general  development  of  the  section. 


144 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


Following  on  the  demands  of  the  market,  the  general  tendency  of 
cattle  raising  at  present  is  toward  the  improved  breed  for  fattening, 
with  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  long-horned  type  of  Texas 
steer.  Large  numbers  of  range  cattle  now  find  a  sale  for  fattening 
on  the  farms  of  the  corn-belt  states.  Just  as  the  increased  demand 
for  the  Minnesota  milling  industry  draws  wheat  from  Canada  and  the 
far  northwest,  so  the  packing  industries  exhaust  the  country's  supply, 


TRIANGULAR  TERRITORY 

IN  WHICH  THE  GREAT 

PROVISION     CENTERS    4, 

ARE  LOCATED. 

SCALE  OF  MILES 
0      100  200  300    400  500  600 


BORMAt  *  CO.. 


and  regularly  draw  cattle  from  beyond  the  Mexican  border  to  be 
fattened  in  the  corn-belt.  The  great  provision  centers  which  are 
dependent  upon  live  stock  products,  are  included  within  a  triangular 
territory,  formed  by  the  Missouri  and  the  Ohio  rivers  on  two 
sides,  and  on  the  third  by  a  line  reaching  from  Pennsylvania  to 
Nebraska.1 

107,   The  Movement  of   Cotton. — The   distribution   of  cotton  is 
first  from  its  areas  of  production    to    the   Atlantic    and    Gulf  sea- 

l  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  January,  1901,  p.  1663. 


Internal  Commerce  of  the   United  States  145 

board,  its  movement  from  thence  being  by  water.  More  than  half 
the  cotton  of  Texas  and  Indian  Territory  reaches  Galveston  as  a 
centralizing  and  distributing  point.  The  Mississippi  River  and  its 
tributaries  gather  the  crops  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Tennessee, 
Oklahoma,  Arkansas,  and  other  parts  of  the  region  and  centralize 
the  product  at  New  Orleans.  The  cotton  from  Alabama  and  the 
South  Atlantic  cotton  States,  finds  its  way  by  rail  to  the  South 
Atlantic  seaboard,  chiefly  Charleston  and  Savannah.  A  certain 
amount  of  cotton  is  moved  by  rail  from  the  areas  of  production  to 
northern  and  eastern  factories;  some  of  the  cotton  from  Texas 
thus  comes  a  distance  of  2000  miles.  The  bulk  of  the  move- 
ment, however,  is  towards  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  sea- 
board. 

Upwards  of  10,000,000  bales  of  cotton  are  yearly  produced, 
(1901-1902),  approximately  one-tenth  of  which  is  consumed  within 
the  area  of  production.  Quite  a  proportion  of  the  cotton  manufac- 
tures of  the  country  are  now  in  the  cotton  growing  states.  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  these  states  may  yet  manufacture  the  bulk  of  their 
product.  Of  the  surplus  about  2,000,000  bales  go  to  the  northern 
manufacturing  centers,  the  remainder  (over  6,000,000  bales)  enters 
into  foreign  trade.  The  increased  growth  of  the  cotton- mill  in- 
dustry in  the  South  is  attended  by  an  increased  stimulus  to  various 
other  departments  of  trade  throughout  the  country  at  large.  In  nine 
southern  States,  during  the  year  1900,  131  cotton  mills  were  built, 
against  40  new  mills  in  nine  northern  States.  "The  influence  of 
this  fact  on  the  cotton  movement  is  far-reaching.  In  the  first  place 
it  changes  the  haul  of  the  raw  materials  from  a  long  to  a  short  one, 
and  therefore  reduces  the  proportion  of  expense  which  enters  into  the 
cost  of  the  manufactured  product.  It  furthermore  increases  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  the  southern  communities  in  which  this  raw  cotton 
is  manufactured,  and  thus  quickens  commerce  from  every  quarter  of 
the  Union ;  upon  this  commerce  southern  communities  become  more 
dependent.  The  general  effect,  therefore,  is  to  increase  the  demands 


146  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

of  the  South,  on  the  northern  and  western  manufacturing  centers  and 
farm  communities."1 

108.  The  Movement  of  Coal  and  Iron. — The  position  of  the  coal 
fields  calls  for  coal  movement  by  rail.     It  is  obviously  desirable  to 
make  this  as  short  as  possible  on  account  of  the  cost  of  rail  transpor- 
tation.    Two  divisions  occur  in  the  main  distribution  of  coal  from  the 
mines,  —  first,  rail  haulage  to  near-by  Atlantic  seaboard  and  Lake 
ports,  and  second,  water  transportation  to  more  distant  coastwise  and 
Lake  points  for  consumption  and  further  distribution.    The  shipments 
of  coal  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  cities  is  one  of  the  largest  items  in  the 
entire  yearly  internal  trade  of  the  country.     Large  quantities  of  coal 
are  shipped  to  lower  Lake  ports  for  consumption  and  for  further 
distribution,  notably  through   Buffalo,   Erie,  and   Cleveland.      The 
source   of  this   supply,   both   to   the   Lakes   and   the   seaboard,   is 
in  the  coal-producing  areas  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Mary- 
land,  Ohio,   Indiana,    and   Illinois.      The   southern    coal    trade    is 
supplied  to  a  growing  extent  by  Alabama,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 
Colorado,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri,  and  Wyoming  are  the  chief  coal- 
producing  states  west  of  the  Mississippi,  while  Washington   is  the 
only  state  on  the   Pacific  coast  that  produces  coal  of  commercial 
value  in  any  quantity. 

The  movement  of  iron  is  intimately  related  with  the  movement  of 
coal.  The  Pittsburg  district  of  western  Pennsylvania  produces  ap- 
proximately one-half  of  the  total  pig  iron  made  in  the  United  States. 
This  calls  for  a  supply  of  ore  which  comes  mainly  from  the  Lake 
Superior  region  by  a  long  water  and  rail  haulage.  Important  centers 
of  pig  iron  production  also  occur  in  Ohio,  Illinois  (South  Chicago), 
and  Alabama  (Birmingham).  The  above  facts  serve  to  show  some 
of  the  features  of  the  movement  of  these  two  great  commodities. 
Not  only  are  coal  and  iron  important  in  themselves,  but  they  serve  as 
a  basis  for  more  general  industrial  activity. 

109.  The   Movement   of  Lumber. — There  are    several  important 

1  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  January,  1901,  p.  1660. 


Internal  Commerce  of  the  United  States 


147 


areas  of  distribution  in  the  lumber  trade,  in  each  of  which,  one  or 
more  markets  receive  the  bulk  of  the  products.  In  1900  New 
York  City  handled  a  quantity  of  lumber  aggregating  over  a  billion 
feet.  There  were  four  main  movements:  (i)  From  the  South,  the 
products  being  chiefly  yellow  pine  which  was  transported  by  water; 
(2)  from  Maine  and  other  points  to  the  eastward,  likewise  coming  by 
water ;  (3)  a  movement  by  rail  from  the  interior  which  is  second  in 
importance  to  the  southern  movement ;  and  (4)  a  movement  by  way 
of  the  canals  and  the  Hudson  River. 

St.  Louis  is  an  important  lumber  market  of  the  central  region, 
having  cheap  transportation  and  being  conveniently  situated  in  relation 
to  both  the  northern  and  southern  areas  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
Chicago  is  an  important  center  in  the  Lake  Region.  The  white  pine 
and  hemlock  timber  of  the  pine  belt  finds  its  way  through  the  upper 
Lake  ports,  and  by  way  of  the  Mississippi,  into  the  general  com- 
mercial movement.  On  the  Pacific  coast  there  are  two  main  move- 
ments, one  by  rail  and  the  other  by  water.  Fully  one-third  of  the 
cargo  shipment  of  lumber  from  British  Columbia,  for  1900,  was  to 
eastern  points  by  way  of  Cape  Horn.  This  region  is  adjacent  to 
the  Washington  timber  area.  The  rail  movement  from  Washington 
is  mainly  eastward,  reaching  to  the  Mississippi  Valley. 


SUMMARY   OF  LAKE  COMMERCE  1901  AND   1902.1 


COMMODITIES 

RECEIPTS 

SHIPMENTS 

19O1 

1903 

1901 

19O2 

Flour 

14,257,020 
I53,5°8,928 
9.205,764 
20,770,447 
2,475,430 
4,238,178 

16,765,550 
130,700,987 
8,255.117 
27,898,424 

2,500,797 
5,458,647 

14  028,140 
150,870,192 
9,480,541 
20,872,470 
2,454.060 
4,275,208 

16,292,560 
126.207.984 
9,632.966 
27,854.152 
2.399-958 
5,132,556 

Grain  and  flaxseed      .     .     .    bushels 
Coal      net  tons 
Ore  and  minerals    .     .     .     gross  tons 
Lumber  and  logs     .     .     .     .      M  feet 
Unclassified  freight     .     .     .   net  tons 

Total  freight  reduced  to  net  tons 

45,007,019 

54,074,729 

45,138,420 

55,045,636 

1  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department. 


148  The  Geography  of  Commerce 


SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

75.  The  following  occurs  in  Washington's  Farewell  Address  (1796):    "The 
North,  in  an  unrestrained  intercourse  with  the  South,  finds,  in  the  productions  of 
the  latter,  great  and  additional  resources  of  maritime  and  commercial  enterprise 
and  precious  materials  of  manufacturing  industry.     The  South,  in  the  same  inter- 
course, benefiting  by  the  agency  of  the  North,  sees  its  agriculture  grow  and  its 
commerce  expand.     The  East,  in  like  intercourse  with  the  West,  already  finds, 
and  in  the  progressive  improvement  of  interior   communications  by  land  and 
water,  will  more  and  more  find  a  valuable  vent  for  the  commodities  which  it 
brings  from  abroad,  or  manufactures  at  home.     The  West  derives  from  the  East 
supplies  requisite  to  its  growth  and  comfort,  and  it  must  of  necessity  owe  the 
secure  enjoyment  of  indispensable  outlets  for  its  own  productions  to  the  weight, 
influences,  and  the  future  maritime  strength  of  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Union, 
directed  by  an  indissoluble  community  of  interest  as  one  nation."     Explain  the 
preceding  as  a  statement  of  the   benefits   of  internal  commerce.     Consider  it 
under  the  heads  of  prophecy  already  fulfilled,  and  prophecy  to  be  fulfilled. 

76.  What  were  the  percentages  of  rural  and  urban  population  of  the  last  three 
censuses  ?     How  do  you  account  for  the  change  ? 

77.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  centralization 
of  manufactures  and  different  branches  of  commerce  ? 

78.  Take  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  and  draw  boundaries  for  the 
chief  trade  areas.     Mark  on  this  map  the  principal  raw  products  and  manufac- 
tures in  each  area. 

79.  President  Grant  is  said  to  be  the  only  national  executive  to  make  a  pun  in 
an  annual  message.     It  was,  "  Agriculture  is  the  groundwork  of  our  national  re- 
sources."    How  largely  is  this  statement  true  to-day?     For  the  last  census  year 
what  proportion  of  the  total  wealth  produced  in  the  United  States  was  in  agri- 
cultural products  ? 

80.  Locate  the  "  Iroquois  trail,"  the  "Kittanning  path,"  and  other  portages  of 
the  Alleghanies.     What  is  indicated  by   the  succession   of  buffalo  trail,  Indian 
path,  pack  train  and  wagon  road  of  frontiersmen,  and  later  of  canal  and  railroad, 
along  one  of  these  lines  ?     (Hulbert,  Historic  Highways,  Vols.  I  and  II.) 

81.  What  is  meant  by  the  "canalizing"  of  a  river  ?      Upon  what  does  the 
commercial  value  of  a  river  depend?     (See  p.  220,  Question  152.)     What  are 
the  chief  advantages  of  your  nearest  important  commercial  river  ? 

82.  What  are  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  Lake  steamers  termed  "  whale-backs  "  ? 

83.  The  governor  of  Minnesota   in   a   public  address  (Minneapolis,  1902) 
claimed  a  greater  freight  shipment  from  Duluth  and  its  neighboring  port  of 
Superior,  than  is  shipped  from  any  other  port  in  the  United  States.     Substantiate 
or  disprove'  this   claim.     How  do  you  account  for  the  large  shipments  from 
Duluth  ? 


Internal  Commerce  of  the   United  States  149 

84.  How  many  vessels  on  the  average  passed  through  the  "  Soo  "  Canal  for 
every  day  of  the  last  season  of  navigation  ?     Compare  with  shipping  through 
the  Suez. 

85.  In  railroading  usage  what  is  meant  by   "  coaler  "  ?     By  "  granger  "  ?     By 
"  trunk  line  "  ?     Illustrate  each  of  these,  showing  the  termini,  the  chief  cities 
served,  and  the  commodities  moved. 

86.  Consider  the  relation  between  electric  roads  and  steam  roads  as  "  great 
arteries  "and  "feeders."     Can  you  see  any  good  reason  why  there  should  be 
rivalry  between  these  as  instruments  of  transportation  ?     Investigate  the  experi- 
ments with  the  "  freight  trolley "  about  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  in  Massachusetts. 
(Special  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Railway  Commission  on  the  latter.) 

87.  Get  documents  from  the  Public  Roads  Inquiries  Office  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  consult  magazine  articles,  and  prepare  an  essay  on  The  Recent 
Movement  for  Good  Roads. 

88.  What  have  been  the  effects  on  ships  and  shipping  from  reserving  coastwise 
commerce  of  the    United  States   to  American  ships  ?     Compare  our  merchant 
fleet  engaged  in  domestic  commerce  with  our  fleet  engaged  in  foreign  trade. 
(See  p.  153.) 

89.  Consider    the     commerce    of    the    following    cities :    Boston,    Pittsburg, 
Savannah,  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Portland,  and  San  Francisco. 
Study   each  city   according  to  the    following   plan:  (a]  the  raw   materials  for 
which  it  is  a  distributing  point;    (£)   the  manufactures  carried  on  in  or  close 
about  the  city;   and  (<:)   its  transportation  advantages. 

90.  What  three  routes  are  available  for  the  shipment  of  Minnesota  grain  ? 
What  will  determine  choice  of  routes  ? 

91.  Can  you  account  for  the  prevalent  "small  shop  "  industries  of  New  York 
City  and  the  large  industrial  establishments  of  Philadelphia  ? 

92.  Discuss  the  statement,  "  no  nation  is  so  near  to  starvation  as  the  one  that 
gives  itself  solely  to  the  raising  of  food  products." 

93.  Sketch  the  industrial  development  of  the  South  since  1870.     To  what  has 
this  "  New  South"  been  due  ?     Twelfth  Census,  Vol.  VII. 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

"""Treasury  Department,  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  January, 

1901. 
*Rocheleau,  Manufacturing.     Great  American  Industries,  Volume  III.     Flani- 

gan  Company,  Chicago.     Elementary. 
*Lawson,  American  Industrial  Problems.     Chapters  XIV  and  XV,  Railways,  and 

XXIV  to  XXIX,  Typical  Industries. 
"Johnson,  Inland  Waterways.     Publications  of  American  Academy  of  Political 

and  Social  Science. 
*Twelfth  Census  on  Manufactures. 


CHAPTER  X 


WIDER  TRADE  OUTLOOK   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

"  The  era  of  exclusiveness  is  past" 

—  WILLIAM  MCKINLEY. 

110.  New  Trade  Outlook. — The  crowning  and  closing  words  of 
President  McKinley's  life  marked  the  ushering  in  of  a  new  com- 
mercial era.  The  rapid  de- 
velopment of  the  means  of 
transportation  since  the  com- 
pletion of  the  first  great  trans- 
continental railroad  in  1869,  has 
caused  an  enormous  increase 
in  production,  particularly  in 
agriculture.  For  example,  the 
increased  transportation  facili- 
ties have  doubled  the  yearly 
production  of  wheat  in  the  past 
thirty  years,  and  more  than 


EUROPE 

$215,000,000 

-        52$ 

NORTH  AMERICA 

$96,000,000. 

-        23$ 

ASIA 

$34,000,000 

».            8* 

OCEANIA 

$29,000,000 

7* 

SOUTH  AMERICA 

AFRICA  

$27,000,000 

STTTTOCTOOO  — 

7* 

=  tt 

UNITED  STATES'  EXPORTS  OF  MANUFAO  doubled  the  annual  corn  pro- 
TURED  PRODUCTS  FOR  1901,  APPROXI-  duction  during  the  same  period. 
MATED  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS  In  three  decades   cotton  pro- 
Total,  $412,000,000  duction  has  increased  I50  per 

cent,  and  the  yearly  production  of  wool  has  advanced  from 
150,000,000  pounds  to  more  than  300,000,000  pounds.  The 
growth  in  the  production  of  mineral  products  has  been  even  more 
rapid. 

At  the  same  time  there  has  been  a  marked  fall  in  the  transportation 

'5° 


Sewing  Machines,  Agri.  MfM 
Agricultural!  TooU.^lJles. 
Scientific  Appara          " 
Typewriters,    Fur 


_  Furniture.  Cotton  and 
Woolen  Goods.  Iron  and  Stee!  Goods, 
Hour,  Shoe..  Paper,  P,.ints   and 
India  Rubber  Goods. 


UNITED  STATES  IN 


Macl.inerr,  Vehicles,  Clocks 
Be  Apparatus,  Washes  To 
•rare.  Cotton  Goods,  Shoes, 


WORLD'S  MARKETS 


Wider  Trade  Outlook  of  the  United  States          151 

rates, — the  cost  of  shipping  wheat  by  rail  from  Chicago  to  New  York, 
for  example,  having  declined  upwards  of  20  cents  per  bushel.  One 
striking  effect  of  this  increased  production  of  raw  material  has  been 
enormously  to  increase  manufacture.  Upwards  of  5,500,000  persons 
are  npw  engaged  in  the  various  manufacturing  industries  as  against 
2,000,000  in  1870.  The  money  in  circulation  has  also  increased 
from  $17.50  per  capita  to  $28.66  per  capita.  As  Mr.  O.  P.  Austin 
of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  has  remarked  in  a  recent  paper,  all  this 
has  come  about  within  the  short  space  of  thirty  years,  during  which 
time  the  population  increased  100  per  cent.1 

111.  Commercial  Expansion.  —  The  effect  of  this  immense  increase 
in  both  raw  and  manufactured  products  is  to  create  a  surplus  which 
must  find  a  market  outside  of  the  United  States.  In  1902,  the 
United  States  stood  second  only  to  Great  Britain  in  the  value  of 
exports,  and  very  nearly  equaled  that  country.  The  United  States' 
exports  in  1900  and  1901  were  larger  than  for  1902,  and  in  the 
former  years  this  nation  took  first  place  in  the  value  of  the  export 
trade.  Germany  stands  third  as  an  exporting  nation.  As  an  import- 
ing nation,  the  United  States  occupies  third  place,  Great  Britain  and 
Germany  having  a  larger  import  trade.  It  is  estimated  that  nearly 
45  per  cent  of  the  United  States'  imports  is  raw  material  for  use  in 
the  various  manufacturing  industries,  which  require  more  material 
than  the  country  itself  supplies ;  much  of  this  is  returned  as  finished 
goods  to  the  world's  markets. 

The  demand  for  American  goods  in  foreign  markets  is  due  to 
their  cheapness  and  excellence.  Increase  in  our  foreign  sales  is  also 
affected  by  the  variety  of  the  goods  produced.  As  a  British  writer 
has  recently  said,  "  From  shaving-soap  to  electric  motors,  and  from 
shirt-waists  to  telephones,  the  American  is  clearing  the  field."  "Noth- 
ing could  well  be  more  gratifying,"  says  Mr.  Frederic  Emory,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  Commerce,  "  than  the  picture  of  our  foreign  trade 
as  it  is  to-day  by  comparison  with  the  figures  of  very  recent  years. 

1  The  World's  Work,  August,  1902. 


152 


The  GeograpJiy  of  Commerce 


EUROPE 


$844,000,000      -    90# 


It  is  all  the  more  remarkable  because  our  progress  has  been  achieved 
with  but  little  effort,  and  by  means  not  directed  specifically  to  the 
promotion  of  foreign  trade,  but  is  largely  fortuitous,  and  springing 
from  our  intense  absorption,  for  many  years,  in  domestic  industry  and 
internal  development.  In  other  words,  we  have  reached  a  surprising 
eminence  in  the  exportation  of  manufactured  goods,  not  because  we 
were  seeking  that  goal,  but  because,  in  developing  our  resources,  and 
in  manufacturing  for  the  home  market,  we  attained  an  excellence  and 

comparative  cheapness  of  pro- 
duction which,  to  the  astonish- 
ment of  ourselves  as  well  as  of 
the  world  at  large,  has  suddenly 
made  us  a  formidable  com- 
petitor,— perhaps  the  most  for- ' 
midable  of  all,  —  in  the  great 
international  rivalry  for  trade."  ] 
Viewed  in  this  light,  foreign 
trade  is,  after  all,  only  the  expan- 
sion of  the  internal  commerce 
of  the  country  —  the  doing  well 
UNITED  STATES'  EXPORTS  OF  AGRICUL-  of  what  lies  nearest  at  hand. 
TURAL  PRODUCTS  FOR  1901,  APPROXI-  There  are  certain  other  fac- 

MATED  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS  .   L 

tors,  however,  to  be  taken  into 

Total,  $943,000,000 

consideration  in  the  review  of 

our  commercial  expansion.  One  of  these  is  the  establishment 
of  favorable  trade  agreements,  and  another  the  increase  of  the 
merchant  marine.  Special  trade  agreements  have  at  various  times 
been  brought  into  force  between  the  United  States  and  several  other 
countries.  The  establishment  of  an  American  merchant  marine  on 
a  larger  scale  is  a  necessity,  if  we  wish  to  secure  the  full  advantages 
of  foreign  commerce.  The  subsidizing  of  steamship  lines  by  the 

1  Introduction    to  Review  of  the  World's    Commerce   for  1900,    Department   of 
State,  Vol.  I,  p.  21. 


NORTH  AMERICA  $58,OOO,OOO          = 


ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES      $41   OOO.OOO 


Wider  Trade  Outlook  of  the   United  States          153 


government  has  of  late  been  urged  as  an  important  aid  to  secure 
regular  steamship  service. 

One  of  the  chief  obstacles  to  the  building  up  of  a  large  merchant 
marine  is  the  difficulty  of  securing  regularity  of  shipment,  and  return 
cargoes.  Experience  has  shown  that  in  several  instances  an  increase 
of  trade  has  developed  in  both  directions  by  putting  into  operation  a 
line  of  steamships  as  regular  carriers  between  certain  foreign  ports 
and  the  United  States.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  regular  communi- 


gerf- 


Z** 

§«* 
S30^ 

<2<$ 


CURVE  A-DECREASE,    IN  PER  CENT 
OF  UNITED  STATES  COMMERCE 
CARRIED  BY  AMERICAN  SHIPS 
CURVE  B-INCREASE  OF  TOTAL 
FOREIGN  COMMERCE  OF  U.S. 


cation  established  with  various  countries.  The  excellence  of  our 
consular  service  is  another  factor  in  the  growth  of  American  com- 
merce abroad.  The  consular  reports  submitted  to  the  Bureau  of 
Foreign  Commerce,  indicate  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  character 
and  volume  of  trade  in  different  parts  of  the  world  and  keep  our 
producers  and  business  houses  in  touch  with  the  needs  of  foreign 
markets. 

112.    Fundamental  Principles.  —  The  underlying  principle  of  for- 
eign trade  is  the  same  as  that  which  underlies  the  internal  trade  of 


1 54 


T/ie  Geography  of  Commerce 


the  country.  It  was  seen  in  reviewing  the  different  industrial  sections 
of  the  United  States  that  no  one  of  them  is  economically  self-sufficient, 
and  that  the  demand  for  outside  products  and  the  ability  to  furnish 
products  of  its  own,  in  the  case  of  each  of  the  sections,  based  on 
the  physiographical  features  of  the  cultivated  regions,  were  the  vital 
principles  that  have  expanded  into  organized  commercial  life.  The 
same  principles  hold  in  the  relations  of  the  country  as  a  whole  to  the 
world  at  large.  Though  the  United  States  might  exist  in  a  state  of 


1800  1810 


1890  1900 


self-sufficiency  for  a  greater  or  less  length  of  time,  it  would  do  so  at 
the  expense  of  its  national  vitality.  The  demands  of  the  industrial 
life  regularly  overreach  the  country's  capacity  for  production  and 
draw  its  raw  material  from  outside  of  the  national  domain.  This  was 
seen  to  be  the  case  in  the  milling  and  cattle  industries  (see  p.  144), 
and  it  is  true  of  other  branches  of  industry.  The  physical  contrasts 
between  different  countries,  the  want  of  self-sufficiency,  the  varying 
industrial  activities,  and  the  surplus  of  production  over  consumption, 


Wider  Trade  Outlook  of  the   United  States 


55 


call  into  existence  a  world  movement  of  commodities  which  has 
been  organized  into  the  foreign  commerce  of  nations.  The  great 
contrast  that  exists  between  the  temperate  zone  and  the  tropics  is 
a  fundamental  factor  in  the  world's  trade  to-day,  and  the  devel- 
opment of  commercial  activity  with  this  in  mind  calls  for  careful 
consideration  on  the  part  of  governments,  and  the  establishment  of 
a  sound  policy  based  on  the  reciprocal  advantages  of  trade. 

113.  Tropical  Colonization  and  Control. — The  statement  above 
made  concerning  the  trade  between  tropical  and  temperate  lands,  leads 
naturally  to  a  question  of  the 
control  of  the  tropics.  That 
tropical  lands  will  come  more 
and  more  under  the  control  of 
outside  peoples,  is  apparent 
from  the  present  efforts  toward 
expansion  on  the  part  of  the 
leading  nations,  and  also  from 
recent  experiences  in  the 
tropics.  The  Dutch  and  Por- 
tuguese in  the  East,  the  Spanish 
influence  in  tropical  America, 
the  British  control  of  India,  the 
French  in  Indo-China  and  Ton- 
quin,  the  Russian  invasion  of 
China,  the  partition  of  tropical 
Africa,  the  United  States  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  Philippines,  are 
familiar.  These  facts  do  not  imply  that  tropical  colonization  has  ever 
taken  place  or  is  ever  likely  again  to  take  place  in  the  same  way 
as  North  America  was  colonized  by  Europeans,  or  as  Siberia  is 
being  colonized  by  Russians  to-day.  It  is  true  that  tropical  America 
has  become  Spanish  America,  but  only  through  widespread  inter- 
marriage with  the  native  peoples  and  the  universal  employment  of  a 
peasant  class  in  labor,  not  by  colonization  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 


GREAT  BRITIAN  $624,000,OOO           -        421/2g 

GERMANY               $188,000.000           =          121/2* 

CANADA                     $99,OOO,OOO 

7* 

NETHERLANDS        $83,OOO,OOO 

6% 

FRANCE                                      $76,000.000 

s-f, 

BELGIUM                                     $48,000,000 
"NTEXTCO  ~                         £35,OOU.('CO  

l^pf 

ITALY                                                      S34.UUU.UOO 

ALL  OTHER.  COUNTRIES  $273,000,000 

—        1951 

COMMERCE    OF   UNITED    STATES    (1900- 
1901).    EXPORTS  BY  COUNTRIES,  APPROX- 
IMATED IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 
Total,  $  1,460,0x20,000 


56 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


word.  For  reasons  already  pointed  out  (p.  24)  permanent  resi- 
dence in  the  tropics  by  white  peoples  is  hardly  possible  on  the  scale 
to  establish  permanent  settlements.  The  tropics  can  probably  best 
be  controlled  from  the  outside,  by  increasing  the  advantages  of  trade 
to  the  peoples  of  dissimilar  environments. 

The  increasing  demand  among  peoples  of  the  temperate  zone  for 
tropical  products,  —  tea,  coffee,  cacao,  tobacco,  sugar,  spices,  rubber, 
oils,  drugs,  dyestufTs,  fruits,  woods,  hemp,  cotton,  jute,  rice,  and  even 

wheat  (where  conditions  of 
growth  are  favorable),  has  been 
and  is  the  cause  of  this  wide- 
spread invasion  of  the  tropics. 
"  What  the  European  wants  is 
raw  products,  not  territory, 
and  he  goes  to  the  tropics,  not 
for  settlement,  but  to  obtain 
tropical  products."1  The  in- 
habitants of  the  tropics  most 
need  the  manufactured  prod- 
ucts of  the  temperate  zone. 
IMPORTS  INTO  UNITED  STATES  BY  COUNTRIES  Such  being  the  case,  the  con- 
(1901-1902),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MILLIONS  trol  of  the  tr0pics  is  bes1;  se_ 

OF  DOLLARS  .. 

cured  by  the  establishment  of 
Total  imports,  $903,320,948 

reciprocal   trade   rather   than 

by  conquest.  Tropical  possessions  call  for  a  wise  policy  on  the  part 
of  the  home  government  by  establishing  the  native  peoples  on  a  firm 
basis  of  prosperity,  by  creating  and  diffusing  a  commercial  interest 
which  will  further  the  development  of  resources,  and  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  trade  advantageous  to  both.  By  this  means  only  can 
tropical  possessions  be  profitably  held. 

114.    Effects  of  Commercial  Expansion. — The  geographical  posi- 


UNITED  KINGDOM         167.7 

18* 

GERMANY                          1O2 

1135 

FRANCE                                 83 

9* 

BRAZIL                                  79 

8.7* 

BRITISH  NORTH  AMERICA       48.8 

5.3* 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES      424.8 

48* 

1  Major  Younghusband  in  Monthly  Review,  February,  1902 ;  also  Kidd,  The  Control 
of  the  Tropics. 


Wider  Trade  Outlook  of  the   United  States          157 


tion  of  the  United  States  gives  it  an  advantage  in  the  commercial 
rivalry  of  nations.  Situated  between  the  two  great  oceans,  with 
Europe  on  one  side  and  Asia  on  the  other,  a  vast  territory  under  a 
single  government,  the  United  States  is  in  a  position  to  hold  an 
increasingly  larger  share  of  the  world's  commerce.  The  markets 
of  Japan,  China,  and  Asiatic  Russia  are  nearer  to  us  than  to  any 
European  country.  The  completion  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  will 
give  us  a  still  greater  advantage.  With  our  increased  commercial 
supremacy  and  the  advantage  of  geographical  position,  we  shall 
undoubtedly  have  a  decided 
influence  in  future  international 
affairs,  for  commercial  suprem- 
acy means  more  than  an  ability 
successfully  to  compete  in  the 
world's  market.  It  is  a  potent 
factor  in  the  question  of  the 
balance  of  power,  and  as  such 
may  be  used  to  secure  inter- 
national peace. 

The   attempt  to  force   com- 
petitors out  of  the   market    in 

every  department  of  trade  is  of  APPROXIMATED  VALUES  OF  EXPORTS  FROM 
doubtful  advantage.  Its  ten- 
dency in  the  long  run  would  be 
to  destroy  markets  rather  than  to  build  them  up.  The  under- 
lying principle  in  international  trade  is  the  territorial  division 
of  labor.  Trade  policy  should  recognize  the  adaptability  of  certain 
regions  and  peoples  for  certain  lines  of  work.  A  particular  people 
by  their  inherent  qualities  and  the  conditions  of  their  environment 
may  be  better  fitted  than  any  other  people  for  carrying  on  a  certain 
industry.  This  should  be  recognized  and  the  particular  industry 
fostered. 

The  student  of  the  Geography  of  Commerce  will  readily  see  by  a 


THE  UNITED  STATES  (1900-1901) 
Total  exports,  $1,460,000,000 


158 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


survey  of  a  country  in  what  directions  the  activities  of  the  people 
should  tend.  The  extractive  industries,  such  as  agriculture,  mining, 
lumbering,  and  the  fisheries,  have  usually  been  the  basis  of  prosperity. 
As  this  prosperity  increases,  the  manufacturing  industries  will  assume 
importance,  varying  according  to  the  character  of  the  people  and 


1850 


1850 


1860 


1870 


1880 


1890 


1900 


80 

70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 

14,000 
T  2,000 
10,000 
8,000 
6,000 
4,000 
2,000 

INCREASE  OF  MANUFACTURES 
COMPARED  WITH  INCREASE 
OF  POPULATION 

UNITED  STATES 

/ 

CO 

z 

> 

/ 

4 

o 

_J 
_l 

5 

7 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/    3 

O 
D 

Z 

o 
g 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

O 
CO 

z 
o 

:D 

Q. 

O 

Q. 

vo^ 

<$?> 

/^ 

/ 

/ 

_l 

i 
z 

^ 

^ 

w 

lHor«5«SS- 

^ 

/ 

ACTURE5 

^L 

^ 

IVIANUF 

^^ 

.^-—  ^ 

YE; 

RS 

1.860 


1870 


1880 


1890 


1900 


the  resources  at  their  command.  At  first  manufacturing  will  be  for 
home  consumption ;  but  later,  if  the.  people  possess  commercial  vital- 
ity, the  growth  of  manufacture  will  draw  raw  material  from  outside 
sources,  and  the  manufactured  products  will  find  an  ever  increasing 
sale  in  the  world's  markets.  Such,  in  brief,  has  been  the  industrial 
and  commercial  evolution  of  the  United  States. 


Wider  Trade  Outlook  of  the  United  States  1 59 

MANUFACTURES  AND   EXPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES1 


COMMODITIES 

MANUFACTURES 
(1900) 

EXPORTS  (1901) 

PER  CEN  r  OF 

MANUFACTURES 
EXPORTED 

Pottery,  terra-cotta  .... 

$  44,000,000 
204,000,000 

$        600,000 
29,790,000 

I.4 

14.6 

Wool      

297,000,000 

1,500,000 

Iron,  steel                              .     . 

835,000,000 

1  1  7,000,000 

Cotton  goods  
Carpets,  ru°s    

339,000,000 
48,000,000 

32,000,000 
105,000 

9-4 

.2 

Packing-house  products 
Carriages,  wagons     .... 

699,000,000 

122,000,000 
35,8OO,OOO 

185,000,000 
2,790,000 
5,500,000 

26.4 
2-3 

15 

Boots,  shoes    ...... 

261,000,000 

6,000,000 

2.3 

Silk    

IO7,OOO,OOO 

3O  I.  OOO 

a 

Furniture    . 

I2C  OOO  OOO 

4IOO  OOO 

•?2 

Glass 

s6.ooo.ooo 

2.OOO.OOO 

3.5 

VALUES  OF  PRINCIPAL  COMMODITIES  IMPORTED  INTO  THE 
UNITED  STATES 


190O-19O1  2 

1901-1903  2 

Sugar 

&  QO  4.8?  8OO 

&  55  o6l.OQ7 

Coffee       

62,861,  3QQ 

7O,Q82,I55 

Chemicals,  drugs,  and  dyes      

c-i  ,508,  1  57 

57,723,622 

Hides  and  skins    ....                                   . 

4.8  2  24.  4  7O 

58,011,168 

Cotton,  manufactures  of 

4O  246  03  5 

A  A    46O    126 

Vegetable  fibers  and  textile  grasses,  manufactures  of 
Silk,  unmanufactured     ...                     .          . 

32,762,608 

30,051,365 

39»°36>364 
42,635,000 

India  rubber  and  gutta-percha 

28,835.178 

25,652,077 

Silk,  manufactures  of 

26  842,138 

32,640,242 

Vegetable  fibers,  textile  grasses,  unmanufactured  . 
Precious  stones 

22,932,506 

2O  425  7^6 

31,545,962 

23  348.225 

Wood,  and  manufactures  of    

10,71:4,205 

24,44  5,  5  QQ 

Fruits  and  nuts      

10,586,70^ 

2I,48o,525 

Tin      

IQ,8O5,55I 

IQ,46l,85O 

Tobacco,  and  manufactures  of     .          .          ... 

l8,77O,526 

I7,7O6,4Q3 

Iron  and  steel,  manufactures  of                  .          .     . 

17.874,780 

27,l8o  247 

'Wool,  manufactured  .                                               . 

14,585  306 

17,384,463 

^Tines  and  liquors                                           .          . 

14  266  600 

15.246  640 

Total  of  all  imports  . 

$823.172.165 

SoO3.32O.Q48 

1  Report  of  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum. 


2  Fiscal  year  ending  June  30. 


160  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS   AND  TOPICS 

94.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  phrase  "trade  follows  the  flag"  ?     Discuss 
this  in  its  relation  to  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States. 

95.  Consider  cost  of  production  and  excellence  of  product  in  their  bearing  on 
international  trade. 

96.  What  was   the   general  relation  of  imports  and  exports  for  the  United 
States  before  1875  ?    What  since  ?    Are  the  totals  for  imports  affected  by  our 
system  of  tariff?     (See  p.  154  and  Reference  to  Question  122,  p.  186.) 

97.  Is  the  United  States  most  largely  an  agricultural  or  a  manufacturing  coun- 
try ?    Compare  the  values  of  agriculture  and  manufactured  products  for  1850, 1880, 
and  the  latest  year  for  which  statistics  are  available. 

98.  Name  in  the  order  of  their  importance  the  five  principal  foreign  trade 
seaports  of  the  United  States.     Discuss  the  trade  of  each.     (See  Question  89, 
p.  149-) 

99.  What  proportion  of  the  manufactured  products  of  the  United  States  is 
consumed  at  home  and  what  is  exported? 

100.  Write  an  essay  on  the  Consular  Service  of  the  United  States  and  point  out 
its  influence  on  foreign  trade.     (Examine  the  Consular  Reports.     See  Conner, 
noted  below.) 

101.  Investigate  the  subject,  Ship  Subsidies  in  their  Influence  on  Fostering 
Foreign  Commerce.     (See  Poolers  Index  to  Periodical  Literature,  under  "  Ship 
Subsidies.") 

102.  What  are  the  different  methods  of  tropical  control?    (See  Kidd,  Control 
of  the  Tropics;  also  The  Forum,  July,  1899.) 

103.  What  was  the  influence  of  opening  up  the  West  upon  sea-faring  life  in  the 
United  States? 

104.  Consult  a  standard  work  on  political  economy  for  the  idea  of  the  inter- 
national division  of  labor.     Make  clear  that  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United 
States  is  but  an  enlargement  of  the  same  principles  that  underlie  the  domestic 
commerce. 

105.  Make  a  study  of  the  organization  and  work  of  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor  of  the  Federal  Government. 

106.  What   is  the    difference  between  "  calendar  "   year  and  "  fiscal "   year  ? 
What  is  the  fiscal  year  of  the  United  States  ?    Can  you  ascertain  any  good  reason 
for  this  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

Adam  Smith,  An  Inquiry  into  the  Nattire  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations. 
**  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States.    Issued  annually  by  Bureau  of  For- 
eign Commerce,     Washington,  D,C. 


Wider  Trade  Outlook  of  the  United  States          161 

*  Benjamin  Kidd,  The  Control  of  the  Tropics.     Macmillan  Co. 

*  Lawson,  American  Industrial  Problems.     Chapters  XX  to  XXIII,  The  Tariff; 

Exports  and  Imports  and  America's  Best  Markets. 

**  Vanderlip,  American  Commercial  Jnvasion  of  Europe.     Three  Papers,  Scrib- 
ner's  Magazine,  beginning  January,  1902. 

*  Publications   of  Foreign  Market  Section   of  the    Department   of  Agriculture, 

Washington,  B.C. 

*  Conner,  Uncle  Sam  Abroad.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  1900. 

*  Marvin,  American  Merchant  Marine.     New  York,  1902. 

**The   World's  Work:    Emory,  The   Greater  America,  December,   1901;    and 

Austin,  Will  our  Commercial  Expansion  Continue  ?  August,  1902. 
Laughlin  &  Willis,  Reciprocity.     New  York;   1903. 


CHAPTER  XI 

OUTLYING   POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

115.  The  Philippine  Islands.— The  Philippines  form  an  archi- 
pelago of  about  2000  islands  extending  between  4°  and  21°  north 
latitude.  They  are  separated  from  the  continent  of  Asia  by  the  South 
China  Sea.  The  archipelago  extends  practically  from  Borneo  to 
Formosa.  The  greater  number  are  small  islands,  and  they  are  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  by  comparatively  narrow  channels.  The 
islands  are  volcanic ;  earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence.  The  surface  of  the  various  islands  is  rugged  and 
mountainous ;  the  mountains  are  interspersed  with  wide  valleys, 
which  are  watered  by  numerous  streams.  The  climate  and  vegeta- 
tion are  tropical,  and  the  soil,  of  volcanic  debris,  is  extremely 
fertile.  This,  together  with  the  abundant  natural  irrigation  of  the 
soil,  gives  to  the  islands  the  appearance  of  gardens  of  luxuriant 
growth.  The  area  of  the  entire  archipelago  is  equal  to  about  the 
area  of  the  New  England  States,  New  York  and  New  Jersey  com- 
bined. The  largest  and  most  important  island  is  Luzon,  about  equal 
in  area  to  New  York  State.  Mindanao  is  nearly  as  'large.  Between 
Luzon  on  the  north  and  Mindanao  on  the  south  are  the  smaller 
islands  of  Mindoro,  Panay,  Negros,  Cebu,  Bohol,  Leyte,  and  Samar. 
South  of  Mindanao  lies  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  and  to  the  west  the 
long  island  of  Palawan,  both  of  which  are  geographically  more  nearly 
related  to  Borneo,  though  they  are  included  in  the  Philippine  group. 

The  population  of  the  Philippines  (about  8,000,000)  is  of  very 
mixed  character,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  peoples  of  Negritic 
and  Malayan  stock  with  an  infusion  of  Chinese.  Much  diversity 

162 


Outlying  Possessions  of  the   United  States  163 

of  language  exists  among  the  various  tribes.  About  25,000  whites 
and  100,000  Chinese  are  resident  in  the  islands,  and  these,  in  the 
main,  control  the  industrial  interests.  The  United  States  at  first  held 
the  islands  by  military  force,  but  has  instituted  local  government  in  a 
large  number  of  towns  and  is  rapidly  establishing  schools  throughout 
the  various  districts.  There  are  already  in  the  islands  upwards  of 
700  miles  of  telegraph  and  more  than  600  miles  of  railroad.  The 
entire  group  of  islands  is  divided  into  three  separate  governments  — 
Luzon,  the  Visayas,  and  Mindanao  —  which  together  constitute  the 
colony. 

The  industries  are  mostly  agricultural  and  the  products  altogether 
tropical.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  81°  F.,  the  extremes 
rarely  going  below  61°  or  above  97°.  The  rainfall  is  abundant,  and 
the  year  is  divided  into  three  seasons,  —  a  dry  temperate  season  from 
November  to  February,  a  dry  hot  season  from  March  to  May,  and 
the  rainy  or  wet  temperate  season  from  June  to  October.  Sugar, 
hemp,  and  tobacco  are  the  principal  crops  of  export  value,  while 
rice  and  maize  are  also  raised  as  food  crops  for  native  consumption. 
Coffee  and  cotton  were  formerly  very  important  products.  Cacao 
and  indigo  are  also  grown  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  hemp,  or 
more  properly  speaking,  the  Manila  hemp,  is  the  fiber  from  the  long 
leaves  of  a  native  tree  closely  related  to  the  banana  and  plantain. 
It  is  of  great  value  in  the  manufacture  of  rope,  cordage,  and  sacking. 
Cocoanuts,  pineapple  fiber,  copra  (the  dried  kernel  or  meat  of  the 
cocoanut),  and  certain  native  woods  are  also  important  products. 
The  forests  of  the  Philippines  are  destined  to  be  a  source  of  great 
wealth  in  the  future.  Numerous  varieties  of  valuable  timber  occur, 
some  of  them  being  very  hard  and  capable  of  resisting  the  attacks  of 
the  ship  worm.  These  are  useful  for  sea-piling  work  and  for  railroad 
ties.  Some  varieties  of  wood  also  take  a  very  high  polish.  The  385 
species  of  timber-producing  trees  in  the  archipelago  are  classified  in 
groups  according  to  their  economic  value.  A  great  variety  of  trees 
yield  valuable  gums,  rubber,  gutta-percha,  essential  oils,  and  dyestuffs. 


164  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Seventeen  different  kinds  of  dyewoods  are  found  throughout  the 
islands.  It  is  estimated  that  not  less  than  40,000,000  acres  of  the 
land  are  forest-covered.  The  United  States  government  has  estab- 
lished a  forestry  bureau  which  regulates  the  utilization  of  the  forest 
products  on  the  state  lands. 

There  is  known  mineral  wealth  throughout  the  islands,  though,  as 
yet,  little  has  been  done  to  develop  it.  Gold,  copper,  silver,  lead,  and 
iron  have  been  reported  from  various  places.  Coal  and  petroleum 
are  said  to  exist  in  Cebu  and  Panay,  and  sulphur  in  Leyte.  The 
richest  district  in  mineral  deposits  is  embraced  in  the  provinces  of 
Benguet,  Lepanto,  and  Bontoc.  Much  of  the  copper  ore  contains 
veins  of  gold-bearing  quartz.  The  assay  of  this  ore  gives  an  average 
of  8  per  cent  copper,  and  the  deposits  are  of  very  great  extent.  The 
gold  outlook  is  equally  favorable.  The  Philippine  coal  deposits  are 
mainly  lignites  and  compare  favorably  with  other  coals  of  the  same 
grade  for  steaming  and  domestic  purposes.  The  Philippine  coals  do 
not  form  clinkers  to  the  same  extent  as  do  those  of  Japan  and  Aus- 
tralia. The  development  of  the  iron  deposits  will  undoubtedly 
attend  the  future  exploitation  of  the  coal. 

Hemp,  copra,  tobacco,  hides,  and  sugar  form  80  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  Philippine  exports.  Under  normal  conditions,  raw  sugar  is, 
next  to  hemp,  the  most  important  Philippine  export;  the  output 
of  sugar,  prior  to*  the  Spanish-American  war,  amounted  to  over 
400,000,000  pounds  annually.  Most  of  the  hemp  is  shipped  to  the 
United  States  and  England.  Leaf  tobacco,  cigars,  and  copra  (which 
supplies  an  oil  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap)  go  mainly  to  Euro- 
pean countries.  Sugar  and  sapan  wood  are  sent  into  China  and 
Japan. 

The  imports  are  chiefly  flour,  rice,  wines  and  liquors,  dress  goods, 
coal,  and  petroleum.  Of  imports  from  the  United  States,  bottled 
beer  and  other  liquors  have  a  leading  place.  Flour  and  breadstuffs  ; 
cloth,  thread,  and  yarn ;  iron  manufactures ;  beef,  ham,  and  meat 
products ;  watches,  bicycles,  and  paper  follow  in  the  order  named. 


MANILA  TOBACCO  FACTORY 


MANILA  SUGAR  REFINING 


Outlying  Possessions  of  the   United  States  165 

Manila,  the  capital  and  chief  commercial  city  of  the  islands,  has  a 
population  of  over  300,000  ;  it  commands  a  fine  harbor  on  the  south- 
western coast  of  Luzon.  The  entrance  to  this  harbor  is  guarded  by 
the  fortifications  of  Cavite.  The  town  is  lighted  by  electricity  and 
has  undergone  rapid  improvement  in  its  sanitary  conditions.  Iloilo, 
on  the  island  of  Panay,  is  next  to  Manila  in  size  and  importance. 
Cebu,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name  and  Zamboanga,  on  Mindanao, 
are  also  towns  of  some  note. 

116.  Guam.  —  This  is  the  largest  island  of  the  Ladrone  or  Mari- 
anne Archipelago  and  was  ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United  States  in  the 
Treaty  of  Peace  at  Paris  in  December,  1898.  The  island  is  in  direct 
line  between  San  Francisco  and  the  Philippines,  upward  of  5000 
miles  from  the  former,  and  about  900  miles  from  Manila.  It  has  an 
area  of  about  200  square  miles,  with  a  rich  and  productive  soil,  well 
watered  and  well  forested.  The  inhabitants,  numbering  about  9000,  are 
mostly  immigrants  from  the  Philippines  and  nine-tenths  of  them  can 
read  and  write.  Both  Spanish  and  English  are  spoken.  The  capital 
is  Agana,  with  a  population  of  about  6000.  The  principal  pro- 
ductions are  sugar  cane,  rice,  maize,  cacao,  tobacco,  and  coffee.  A 
great  profusion  and  variety  of  native  fruits  occur.  Among  these  are 
the  cocoanut,  which  gives  rise  to  the  only  important  industry  of  the 
island — that  of  copra  production.  Several  kinds  of  breadfruit, 
figs,  custard  apples,  yams  (a  tuber  much  like  the  sweet  potato), 
lemons,  oranges,  shaddocks,  citrons,  limes,  pineapples,  mangoes,  and 
egg  plants  are  also  cultivated.  Among  timber  trees  and  fiber  plants, 
may  be  mentioned  the  pandanus,  or  screw  pine,  the  long  and  slender 
leaves  of  which  are  used  in  the  making  of  hats  and  mats,  the  "  ifil " 
or  "ipil,"  a  native  tree  yielding  a  very  hard  and  durable  but  brittle 
wood,  the  cotton  tree  used  for  making  pillows,  but  not  woven  into 
cloth  on  account  of  the  poor  quality  of  the  staple,  and  numerous 
others.  Arrowroot,  turmeric,  ginger,  and  peppers  are  also  found  in 
abundance. 

The  island  is  destined  to  be  a  coaling  station  of  growing  impor- 


1 66  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

tance,  and  is  also  a  station  of  the  Pacific  submarine  telegraph.  It 
rains  on  Guam  almost  every  day  because  of  the  abundant  vapors 
of  the  ocean,  which  are  condensed  in  passing  over  the  island. 

117.  Tutuila    (Samoan  .  Islands) . — The    Samoan    or    Navigator 
Group  lies  near  the  i4th  parallel  of  south  latitude  and  about  172° 
west.     It  is  directly  in  the  line  of  the  trans- Pacific  trade  routes  from 
New  Zealand  and   Australia  to  the   United  States.     The  island  of 
Tutuila  and  near-by  islets  have  been  virtually  under  the  control  of  the 
United  States  for  a  number  of  years,  but  became  an  actual  possession 
by  the  Anglo-German  agreement  of  1899.     Tutuila  is  mountainous 
and  volcanic,  well  wooded  and  fertile,  with  an  area  of  about  54  square 
miles ;  it  has  a  population  of  some  2000  inhabitants.     The  produc- 
tions are  tropical,  chief  among  which  are  cocoanuts,  cotton,  sugar, 
and  coffee.     Copra  production  is  the  most  important  industry,  but 
the  output  has  varied,  owing  to  native  disturbances  during  which  the 
cocoanut  palms  have  been  destroyed.    Copra  is  exported  to  the  United 
States  and  to  European  countries,  Germany  taking  the  larger  share 
of  the  whole.     The  island  is  chiefly  important  as  a  naval  base  and 
coaling  station ;  the  harbor  of  Pago  Pago  is  the  most  commodious 
roadstead  of  the  entire  group. 

118.  Hawaii. — The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  a  volcanic  group  lying 
in  the  Pacific  between  the  parallels  of  19°  and  22°  north,  and  the 
meridians  155°  and  160°  west.     Eight  islands  form  the  group  with  a 
total  area  of  6740  square  miles.     The  islands  were  annexed  by  the 
United  States  in  1898,  and  created  a  territory  in  1900.     The  popu- 
lation  is   mixed,   consisting   of   native   and    half-breed    Hawaiians, 
Chinese,  Japanese,  Portuguese,  British,  and  Americans.    The  Twelfth 
Census  reports  a  total  population  of  154,001.     The  islands  enjoy  a 
remarkably  salubrious  and  equable  climate  owing  to  oceanic  influ- 
ences and  to  the  fact  that  they  lie  entirely  in  the  belt  of  the.  trade 
winds   (northeast  trades).     The  mean   yearly  temperature  is  about 
74°  F.  and  the  rainfall  copious,  being  heaviest  in  winter.     The  gen- 
eral surface  of  the  islands  is  mountainous,  and  they  are  well  forested 


1 68  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

in  parts.  The  soils  of  the  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin  and  are  of  re- 
markable fertility.  The  so-called  "  sedimentary  "  soils  are  the  debris 
of  volcanic  lavas  that  have  accumulated  on  the  lower  coastal  lands  and 
river  deltas.  It  is  on  these  soils  that  a  large  portion  of  the  sugar 
cane  is  grown.  Sugar  is  the  chief  production  of  the  islands,  employ- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  capital  and  labor  of  Hawaii,  and  being 
the  chief  export  and  source  of  wealth.  A  number  of  large  estates 
have  productive  capacities  varying  from  1000  to  20,000  tons 
of  sugar  per  year,  and  are  equipped  with  modern  mill  machinery 
for  sugar  refining.  Two  years  are  required  on  an  average  to  pro- 
duce a  crop  of  Hawaiian  sugar,  while  but  one  year  is  required  in 
Louisiana.  Rice  is  the  second  most  important  Hawaiian  crop ;  the 
production  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  who  appear  to  be 
immune  to  the  fevers  of  the  rice  swamps.  Coffee  is  cultivated  quite 
extensively  on  the  four  larger  islands.  It  appears  to  be  a  native  of 
Hawaii,  having  been  long  known  and  used  in  the  wild  state.  The 
chief  fruits  grown  are  bananas  and  pineapples,  which  form  a  consid- 
erable item  of  export.  Vegetables  are  also  raised  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  forests  of  Hawaii  contain  a  great  variety  of  useful  trees  and 
plants,  but  much  of  the  island  area  has  been  deforested  owing  to 
clearing  away  for  cultivation  without  replanting,  and  to  neglect  in 
caring  for  the  forests.  The  destruction  of  these  forests  has  undoubt- 
edly influenced  the  cultivation,  causing  disastrous  droughts,  and  forc- 
ing planters  to  resort  to  irrigation.  Active  measures  for  restoring  and 
conserving  the  Hawaiian  forests  should  be  a  prominent  department 
of  governmental  work. 

Large  areas  are  given  over  to  ranches  where  cattle  and  sheep  are 
grazed  to  supply  meat  for  home  consumption.  The  grazing  industry, 
however,  has  diminished  with  the  increased  spread  of  sugar  planting, 
incident  to  the  relatively  high  price  of  sugar,  thus  making  it  pay  to 
plant  on  even  the  thinnest  soils.  But  hides  and  wool  still  form  a 
considerable  item  of  export. 

Many   new   products    and   industries    are    possible    for    Hawaii. 


Outlying  Possessions  of  the  United  States  169 

Cereal  production  is  promising,  especially  maize  and  wheat.  The 
cinchona  tree  would  undoubtedly  thrive  on  the  upper  forested  slopes 
of  the  mountain  ranges.  Grape  culture  and  wine  production,  silk 
culture,  the  rubber  industry,  tobacco,  market  gardening  and  fruit 
growing,  the  growing  of  orchids,  and  many  other  industries  are 
being  considered  in  Hawaii  to-day.  The  land  is  adapted  for  great 
diversity  in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  agriculture  will  be  the  basis  of 
Hawaiian  industry  and  prosperity. 

Honolulu,  the  capital  (on  Oahu  Island),  with  a  population  of 
nearly  40,000  souls,  commands  a  good  harbor  and  is  the  calling  port 
of  several  trans-Pacific  lines  of  steamers  and  numerous  other  vessels 
engaged  in  trade.  It  is  essentially  an  American  city  with  many  fine 
buildings  and  all  the  appliances  of  modern  civilization.  The  busi- 
ness of  the  islands  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  English  and  American 
houses.  The  central  position  of  Hawaii  in  relation  to  the  Pacific 
trade  routes  has  been  largely  responsible  for  its  growing  commercial 
importance.  Honolulu  is  a  station  for  the  new  American  cable  to 
the  Philippines. 

119.  Porto  Rico.  —  The  island  of  Porto  Rico  was  acquired  by 
the  United  States  from  Spain  in  the  treaty  of  December,  1898. 
It  has  an  area  of  some  3600  square  miles  (about  three-fourths 
the  size  of  Connecticut)  and  a  population  slightly  over  950,000, 
over  one-third  of  whom  are  negroes  and  mulattoes.  The  soil  is 
fertile  and  the  climate  entirely  tropical,  the  island  lying  about  18° 
north  and  within  the  trade-wind  zone.  The  rainfall  is  abundant 
from  the  great  quantity  of  moisture  that  is  condensed  on  the  high 
mountain  slopes  ;  it  is  heaviest  in  November  and  lightest  in 
February.  During  the  late  summer  and  in  the  autumn  the  island  is 
peculiarly  liable  to  the  passage  of  severe  tropical  hurricanes  because 
of  the  equatorial  calms.  A  central  core  of  mountain  ranges,  with 
forested  slopes,  extends  nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  island.  These 
slopes  are  broken  to  form  the  divides  between  numerous  streams 
that  flow  through  the  rolling  hill  country  and  across  the  coast  plain, 


I/O  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

watering  the  land  abundantly.  The  upper  courses  of  these  streams 
afford  an  ample  source  of  power.  The  climate,  though  tropical,  is 
not  characterized  by  extreme  heat,  being  tempered  by  the  never 
failing  trade  winds.  The  humidity  is  somewhat  enervating,  but  the 
climate  is  on  the  whole  healthful  ard  there  is  a  remarkable  freedom 
from  epidemic  diseases. 

Cultivation  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  by  the  peasant  population 
on  the  small  interior  farms,  where  fruits  and  vegetables  of  various 
sorts  form  the  chief  'produce,  though  there  are  numerous  large 
coffee  and  sugar  estates  and  tobacco  plantations,  as  well  as  land 
given  over  to  grazing.  Coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are  the  staple 
products  of  the  island.  In  1900-1901,  166,000  acres  were  under 
coffee,  the  annual  yield  of  which  is  about  60,000,000  pounds.  The 
coffee  bushes  are  grown  in  the  shade  of  banana  and  guava  trees/ 
Porto  Rican  coffee  is  of  fine  quality,  and  after  the  berries  have  been 
polished  and  slightly  colored,  it  finds  a  good  market  in  the  United 
States  and  European  countries.  Eighty  thousand  acres  are  under 
sugar  with  a  yield  of  about  160,000,000  pounds,  while  the  13,000 
acres  of  tobacco  yield  some  12,000,000  pounds  annually.  Pine- 
apples, bananas,  oranges,  guavas,  maize,  rice,  and  cotton  are  also 
important  crops,  and  cocoanuts  grow  abundantly,  especially  on  the 
sandy  shores.  The  raising  of  cattle  is  a  considerable  industry ;  the 
chief  cattle  districts  are  on  the  northern  side  of  the  island.  Much 
valuable  timber  is  found  in  the  forests,  including  ebony,  cedar,  and 
sandalwood,  and  many  varieties  useful  for  building,  as  well  as  dyes, 
tanning  stuffs,  spices,  etc.  Among  minerals,  nagnetite,  copper  ores, 
and  gold  exist  in  considerable  quantities.  Salt,  also,  forms  an  impor- 
tant product,  the  commercial  output  of  which  amounts  to  about 
10,000,000  pounds  a  year.  Large  quantities  of  marble  and  other 
building  stones  occur. 

Coffee  forms  over  63  per  cent  of  the  entire  export  value,  and  sugar 
28  per  cent.  The  remainder  is  made  up  of  tobacco,  honey,  cacao, 
molasses,  cotton,  cattle,  timber,  rind  hides.  The  export  trade  of  the 


Outlying  Possessions  of  the  United  States  171 

island  to  the  United  States  for  1900-1901  amounted  to  upwards  of 
$8,000,000,  and  the  imports  from  the  same  country  upwards  of 
$10,000,000.  The  chief  imports  are  provisions,  cotton  goods,  and 
rice.  Codfish  and  rice  form  the  chief  food  of  the  working  classes, 
the  former  being  imported  largely  from  Canada.  The  trade  with 
foreign  countries  in  1900-1901  was  nearly  $2,000,000  for  imports, 
and  slightly  over  $3,000,000  for  exports.  Of  this  foreign  trade  the 
larger  part  was  with  Spain.  The  chief  manufacturing  interests  at 
present  are  in  the  preparation  of  chocolate,  tobacco,  wax,  rum,  bay 
rum,  matches,  soap,  and  straw  hats.  The  development  of  manu- 
factures and  better  use  of  resources,  the  construction  of  wagon  roads, 
railroads,  and  telegraph  lines,  the  improvement  of  harbor  facilities, 
and  the  furthering  of  educational  interests  are  important  forms 
of  progress.  Labor  is  cheap,  and  new  industries  need  to  be  started 
in  order  to  support  the  working  classes.  Cattle  raising  affords 
a  supply  of  hides  which  could  readily  be  tanned  by  the  use  of 
the  mangle  tree,  and  leather  manufacture  might  be  made  an  im- 
portant industrial  feature  of  the  island.  The  fibers  of  many  native 
plants  can  be  used  in  textile  and  cordage  manufacture.  Starch  fac- 
tories could  be  started  with  prospects  of  good  returns.  The  fishing 
industries  have  as  yet  been  but  little  developed.  The  European  beet 
sugar  has  caused  the  decline  of  the  cane  sugar  industry  in  Porto 
Rico  as  in  other  West  Indian  islands.  What  is  needed  in  the  island 
is  capital,  better  transportation  facilities,  and  more  general  education. 

A  number  of  commercial  towns  occur  along  the  seacoast  at  favor- 
able harbor  points.  San  Juan,  the  capital  (population  32,000),  is  on 
the  north  shore,  1411  miles  from  New  York.  Ponce  (population 
nearly  28,000)  is  on  the  south  shore.  Steamers  ply  from  port  to 
port  around  the  coast,  and  several  lines  connect  the  island  with  other 
West  Indian  islands,  as  well  as  with  United  States  and  European  ports. 

120.  Commercial  Prospects  of  Our  Tropical  Possessions.  —  The 
future  outlook  for  trade  with  our  tropical  possessions  must  be  fcased  on 
the  development  of  their  resources  and  the  creating  of  a  demand  for 


172  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

our  manufactures  and-  food-stuffs.  All  of  the  possessions  are  agricul- 
tural. A  comparatively  few  staple  products  have  heretofore  character- 
ized the  industries  of  these  regions  :  hemp  and  sugar  in  the  Philippines, 
sugar  in  Hawaii,  and  coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco  in  Porto  Rico. 
There  is  every  indication,  however,  that  a  much  greater  variety 
of  tropical  products  may  be  successfully  cultivated  with  prospects  of 
good  returns.  One  obstacle  at  present  to  the  development  of  the 
resources  and  commerce  of  the  several  islands  in  question  is  the 
inadequacy  of  the  means  of  transportation  throughout  their  interior 
parts.  Good  wagon  roads  and  railroads  are  a  necessity  for  increased 
commercial  enterprise. 

At  present  the  annual  importations  of  the  United  States'  tropical 
possessions  amounts  in  round  numbers  to  about  $50,000,000.  This 
is  divided  about  equally  between  manufactured  and  agricultural 
products.  This  consuming  power  is  no  index  to  the  producing 
capacity  of  the  islands.  Increased  areas  in  cultivation  and  in- 
creased productivity,  such  as  the  reclaiming  of  waste  land,  etc., 
mean  that  more  goods  will  be  bought  from  the  outside.  Recent 
developments  have,  in  fact,  decidedly  stimulated  trade.  The  value  of 
United  States' imports  into  Hawaii  increased  upwards  of  57  per  cent 
in  one  year,  and  the  value  of  imports  into  Porto  Rico  upwards  of  78 
per  cent  in  the  same  time.  The  United  States  spends  on  an  average 
upwards  of  $250,000,000  annually  in  the  importation  of  tropical  pro- 
ducts. More  of  these  might  be  grown  with  profit  in  her  own  outlying 
possessions.  In  the-  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1902,  the  United 
States  secured  about  four  and  one-half  per  cent  of  her  total  imports 
from  her  own  islands. 

121.  Alaska. — The  territory  of  Alaska  was  acquired  from  the 
Russian  government  by  purchase  in  1867.  Its  area  (590^84 
square  miles)  is  about  one-sixth  that  of  the  entire  United  States. 
The  habitable  portion  of  the  territory  is  the  coast  strip  and  numer- 
ous islands  of  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  extending  southward  for 
about  500  miles.  Back  of  the  coast  ranges  the  interior  of  Alaska 


Outlying  Possessions  of  the  United  States  173 

is  a  frozen  waste,  covered  with  dense  beds  of  moss  and  a  stunted 
vegetation.  The  Yukon  River  and  its  valley  is  the  only  natural 
highway  into  the  interior,  but  navigation  on  this  river  is  only  possible 
for  a  short  time  during  the  summer,  and  its  mouth  is  situated  too 
far  north  to  make  it  easily  accessible.  The  Twelfth  Census  reports 
a  total  population  (including  Indian  peoples)  of  63,592,  which  was 
nearly  double  that  of  the  preceding  census. 

Sitka,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  Baranoff  Island,  where  it  has  an 
open  winter  harbor.  The  chief  resources  of  the  country  are  in  the 
fur-seal  and  salmon  fisheries,  and  in  the  gold  fields  of  the  upper 
Yukon  Valley  (Klondike  region).  The  invasion  of  Alaska  by  gold 
hunters  is  likely  to  further  develop  the  resources  of  the  country, 
especially  its  mineral  wealth.  A  railroad  has  been  built  over  the 
White  Pass  leading  to  the  upper  Yukon  gold  districts.  Gold  has 
also  been  discovered  in  the  sea  sands  at  Cape  Nome. 

The  salmon  fishery  is  one  of  the  prominent  industrial  features 
of  Alaska.  Salmon  swarm  along  the  coast  and  in  the  rivers  and  are 
especially  abundant  in  Bristol  Bay  and  the  Bering  Sea  region.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  Alaskan  salmon  fisheries  now  supply  more  than 
half  of  the  United  States  product.  Fifty-five  canneries  and  twelve 
salteries  were  reported  in  operation  in  1901,  with  a  total  output  of 
about  100,000,000  pounds  of  salmon  packed  and  shipped,  represent- 
ing a  value  of  nearly  $7,000,000.  The  cod  fisheries  also  are  of  grow- 
ing importance. 

The  mild  character  of  the  southern  coast  strip  of  Alaska  seems 
to  justify  the  belief  that  a  variety  of  vegetables  might  be  grown  for 
local  consumption.  Live  stock  raising  might  also  prove  successful 
on  a  small  scale,  as  there  is  a  supply  of  grass  in  many  places.  The 
introduction  of  reindeer  from  Siberia,  for  food  and  transportation 
purposes,  has  so  far  met  with  fair  success,  and  some  3000  head 
have  been  distributed  in  the  northwestern  section.  Valuable  timber 
exists,  especially  in  the  southeast;  this  can  be  made  available  for 
local  consumption,  and  might  also  furnish  a  small  export. 


1 74  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

The  fur-  seal  has  suffered  a  decrease  in  recent  years  as  a  result  of 
reckless  slaughter.  The  breeding  grounds  of  the  herd  are  on  the 
Pribyloff  Islands,  which  lie  to  the  north  of  the  Aleutian  chain.  It 
is  estimated  that  the  total  value  of  seal  skins  from  this  region 
since  the  purchase  of  Alaska  by  the  United  States  amounts  to  about 
$35,000,000.  The  value  of  furs,  other  than  the  seal,  which  were 
taken  in  Alaska  during  the  same  period,  is  estimated  at  some 
$17,000,000. 

The  gold  output  of  Alaska  for  1901  is  estimated  at  $3,460,000. 
The  chief  gold  districts  are  the  Seward  Peninsula  (including  Cape 
Nome),  the  Yukon  River,  southeastern  Alaska,  Cook  Inlet,  and  the 
Copper  River.1 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

107.  Make  a  study  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787  as  a  basis  for  the  colonial  policy 
of  the  United  States. 

108.  What  were  the  occasion  and  the  terms  under  which  the  United  States 
secured  the  Philippine  Islands? 

109.  What  will  be  the  results  of  the  American  cable  in  the  Pacific,  upon  the 
political  and  commercial  union  of  the  United  States  and  her  dominion  ? 

1 10.  Take  a  map  of  the  Pacific  and  draw  the  trade  routes  from  Vancouver  to 
Australia,  from  San  Francisco  to  the  Philippines,  and  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
to  Japan.     What  do  you  discover  about  the  Hawaiian  Islands  ?     What  can  you 
say  of  the  importance  of  these  islands  in  the  trade  of  the  Pacific? 

in.  Should  the  Chinese  Exclusion  Act  of  the  United  States  be  retained  for 
the  Philippines  and  Hawaii?  Why?  (See  Jenks,  Economic  Questions  in  Colo- 
nies, etc.,  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  War  Department.) 

112.  Consider  the  strategic  and  commercial  importance  of  Porto  Rico.     Are 
these  likely  to  increase  or  diminish?     Why  ? 

113.  What  are  the  advantages  of  nations  situated  in  temperate  regions  hold- 
ing tropical  colonies?     Consider  this  statement,  "  It  is  as  impossible  to  establish 
republican  institutions  in  the  tropics  as  it  would  be  to  plow  the  sea."    Is  repub- 
lican form  of  government  most  largely  a  matter  of  climate  or  of  race? 

1  Commercial  Alaska  in  rqor,  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  for  May,  1902, 
Treasury  Department.  For  1899  the  estimated  value  of  Alaskan  gold  production  was 
$5'459>5°°'  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  (1901),  p.  124. 


Outlying  Possessions  of  the   United  States  175 

114.  Why  is  a  stable  government  in  colonies  a  requisite  for  commercial  pros- 
perity? 

115.  Compare  the  development  in  Alaska  following  the  incoming  for  gold  with 
the  development  in  California.     Why  the  difference? 

116.  Contrast  the  climate  and  natural  productions  of  Alaska  with  those  of  the 
other  outlying  possessions  of  the  United  States.     How  does  the  United  States 
herself  compare  with  the  regions  contrasted  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*Articles  on  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  Alaska,   Philippine   Islands,  Samoa,  Ladrone 

Islands,  in  The  International  Geography. 
**Special  numbers  of  Monthly  Summary    of  Commerce  and  Finance,  Treasury 

Department,  also    Regular  Issues,   Commerce  with   Non-contiguous  Terri- 
tories of  United  States. 
Kidd,   The   Control  of  the  Tropics;  Worcester,   The  Philippine  Islands.     Mac- 

millan  Co. 
Carroll,    Porto     Rico,    its    Population,     Commerce,    Industries,    etc.    Treasury 

Department,  Washington,  D.C. 
*R.  T.  Hill,  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  with  Other  Islands  of  the  West  Indies.      New 

York  and  London,  1898. 
*War  Department,  Publications  of  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs.      Washington, 

D.C. 

Conant,  The  United  States  in  the  Orient.    Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.;  1900. 
Ireland,  Tropical  Colonization.     New  York,  Macmillan  Co.;  1899. 


PART   III 

TRADE   OF  THE    WESTERN  HEMISPHERE 
OTHER    THAN   UNITED   STATES 

CHAPTER  XII 

THE  DOMINION  OF  CANADA 

122.  Regional  Geography. — The  Dominion  of  Canada  embraces 
the  region  from  the  United  States  northward,  and  from  the  Atlantic 
westward  to  the  Pacific  and  the  boundary  of  Alaska.  The  territory 
thus  included  covers  an  area  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  the 
United  States  (including  Alaska)  and  a  little  smaller  than  that  of 
Europe  as  a  whole.  Four  physical  regions  are  included  in  this  area  : 
(i)  the  hills  and  lowlands  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  which 
are  a  continuation  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands  ;  (2)  a  low  V- 
shaped  plateau  of  crystalline  rocks  inclosing  Hudson  Bay  in  its 
center  and  extending  southward  to  the  Great  Lakes.  The  Lake 
Superior  hill  region  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  and 
the  Adirondacks  in  New  York,  are  outlying  portions  of  this  in  the 
United  States  ;  (3)  the  inland  plains  and  prairies,  a  northward 
extension  of  the  Great  Plains  of  the  United  States  ;  and  (4)  the 
Cordilleran  Highland  of  the  western  part,  similar  in  features  to  the 
same  area  in  the  United  States,  and  reaching  northward  along 
the  boundary  of  Alaska,  where  it  rises  into  the  highest  summits 
of  the  system. 

The  entire  area  is  drained  into  four  basins  :  (i)  the  Atlantic 
drainage,  mainly  through  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  (2)  the  Hudson  Bay 
drainage  through  the  Saskatchewan  and  Nelson  rivers  ;  (3)  the 
N  177 


178  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Arctic  drainage  through  the  Mackenzie  and  smaller  streams ;  and 
(4)  the  Pacific  drainage  mainly  through  the  Frazer  River.  The 
St.  Lawrence  system  is  a  vast  navigable  waterway  through  the  lakes 
into  the  heart  of  southern  Canada.  Beyond  the  lakes  the  Winnipeg 
waters  connect  with  the  Saskatchewan,  leading  to  the  eastern  foothills 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  These  waterways,  both  in  eastern  Canada 
and  in  the  Northwest,  played  a  very  important  part  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  fur  trade  of  the  interior. 

The  entire  Dominion  presents  three  climatic  areas  :  (i)  eastern, 
characterized  by  abundant  rainfall  ;  (2)  central,  characterized  by  a 
wide  range  of  yearly  temperature,  and  slight  rainfall;  and  (3) 
western  or  Pacific  coast  region,  of  slight  temperature  range  and 
abundant  rainfall. 

Canada  lies  in  the  zone  of  coniferous  forests  which  stretch  north- 
ward to  the  tree  limit  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  Barren  Grounds. 
The  liiriit  of  tree  growth  is  determined  by  the  relative  length  of  the 
summer.  The  tree  line  in  the  interior  bends  to  the  south,  owing  to 
the  continental  character  of  the  climate  and  the  immediate  influence 
of  the  cold  waters  of  Hudson  Bay.  On  the  western  side  it  reaches 
into  Alaska  as  the  result  of  the  warmer  oceanic  influence  of  the 
Pacific,  while  on  the  eastern  side  it  is  much  farther  south.  This 
vast  forest  area  has  fostered  two  industries  which  have  been  fore- 
most in  the  history  and  development  of  Canada,  —  the  fur  trade 
and  lumbering. 

The  characteristic  trees  of  the  region  are  the  two  species  of  spruce, 
—  the  balsam  fir,  and  the  larch  or  tamarack.  Among  hardwoods,  the 
birches  and  aspens  are  the  prevailing  forms.  The  sable,  ermine, 
marten,  otter,  beaver,  and  other  fur-bearing  mammals  have  their 
home  throughout  this  forest  region. 

123.  The  Provinces.  —  Politically  the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  a 
federation  of  seven  provinces  and  nine  districts  or  territories. 
Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  New  Brunswick  form  the 
Maritime  Provinces,  bordering  on  the  Atlantic.  The  Province  of 


The  Dominion  of  Canada 


179 


Quebec  lies  between  the  southeastern  end  of  Hudson  Bay  and 
Labrador,  extending  southward  to  the  northeastern  border  of  the 
United  States.  West  of  this,  the  Province  of  Ontario  extends  along 
the  northern  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  for  about  a  thousand 
miles,  reaching  northward  to  the  52d  parallel.  West  of  this,  again, 
lies  the  Province  of  Manitoba,  occupying  the  center  of  the  continent. 
British  Columbia  is  the  western  province,  bordering  on  the  Pacific  and 
includes  Vancouver  Island.  Between  British  Columbia  and  Manitoba 
are  the  organized  districts,  embracing  the  interior  constituting  the 
treeless  plains  of  the  eastern 
Rocky  Mountain  slopes. 
Other  unorganized  territories 
comprise  fully  one-third  the 
entire  area  of  Canada. 

124.  Resources  and  Indus- 
tries. —  Of  the  vast  area  of 
Canada  (the  total  land  area 
being  over  3,000,000  square 
miles)  less  than  one-seventh  is 
improved  land.  The  average 
density  of  the  population 
throughout  the  Dominion  is  TOTAL  COMMERCE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  BY 
less  than  two  to  the  square  COUNTRIES  (1900),  APPROXIMATED  IN 
mile.  One  reason  for  this, 
aside  from  the  vast  area  of 
unprofitable  land,  is  the  proximity  of  the  United  States.  A  per- 
centage of  the  population  of  Canada  is  attracted  to  the  more  lucra- 
tive centers  of  trade  in  the  latter  country.  The  area  covered 
by  forests  is  a  little  less  than  one-third  of  the  entire  region.  Lum- 
bering, agriculture,  mining,  and  fisheries  are  the  principal  indus- 
tries. The  value  of  forest  products  in  1891  amounted  to  upward  of 
$80,000,000,  nearly  one-third  of  which  was  exported.1  Wood  pulp  is 

1  Statesman's  Yearbook,  1903. 


UNITED  STATES            $2,282                   -733/4$ 

CANADA                                 $386                    —  1  2  £ 

MEXICO                                  $135 

-    4  * 

CUBA                                       $115 

%      -    33/4  « 

OTHER  COUNTRIES           $183 

MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 

Total  for  all,  $3,101,000,000 


180  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

of  growing  commercial  importance,  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
taking  the  surplus,  which  amounts  in  recent  years  to  more  than  a  mil- 
lion dollars  annually.  The  forests  are  controlled  by  the  several  provin- 
cial governments,  except, the  forty-mile  wide  "  Railway  Belt  "  in  British 
Columbia,  and  the  Manitoba  and  Northwest  Territory  forest  tracts, 
which  belong  to  the  Dominion.  In  New  Brunswick  lumbering  was 
earlier  the  chief  industry,  but  has  declined  with  the  growing  scarcity 
of  pine  timber ;  the  spruce  is  at  present  the  chief  forest  tree.  In  British 
Columbia  the  Douglas  fir  is  prominent  in  the  lumber  trade,  supplying 
the  saw  mills  along  the  Pacific  coast  and  entering  largely  into  export. 

The  fur  trade,  once  the  main  source  of  Canada's  wealth,  is  still 
carried  on  in  the  forest  region  of  the  North,  where  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  has  old  established  posts  at  various  points ;  to  these  the 
Indian  and  other  trappers,  still  bring  their  pelts  for  barter.  Edmon- 
ton on  the  Saskatchewan,  and  also  connected  by  a  branch  line  with 
the  main  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  is  the  centralizing  point  of  the 
fur  trade  and  the  disbursing  town  for  the  traders'  supplies. 

The  largest  percentage  of  the  population  of  Canada  is  engaged  in 
agriculture.  This  is  carried  on  throughout  all  the  provinces,  but 
especially  so  in  Quebec  and  Ontario,  where  it  is  the  chief  occupation 
of  the  people.  Ontario  is  essentially  a  region  of  farms,  being  known 
as  the  "  Garden  of  Canada."  Fruit  culture  is  largely  carried  on  in 
this  district.  Corn,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  and  hay  form 
staple  crops.  Stock  raising  and  dairying  are  carried  on  to  a  large 
extent,  and  in  the  latter  industry  cheese  making  is  of  growing  im- 
portance. Canada  is  at  present  the  largest  cheese-exporting  country 
in  the  world.  Farther  west,  on  the  plains  of  Manitoba  and  beyond, 
spring  wheat  is  the  great  crop,  similar  conditions  prevailing  as  in  the 
contiguous  spring  wheat  belt  of  the  United  States.  In  the  drier 
western  portion  of  the  plains  region  are  the  great  live  stock  ranches, 
the  raising  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  there  being  a  prominent  in- 
dustry. Fruit  culture,  agriculture,  and  the  raising  of  live  stock  are 
largely  carried  on  in  British  Columbia. 


The  Dominion  of  Canada  181 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Canada  is  largely  in  coal  and  gold.  The 
estimated  output  of  each  in  1900  was  upwards  of  5,000,000  tons  of 
coal,  and  gold  to  the  value  of  nearly  $28,000,000.  Copper,  silver, 
lead,  nickel,  iron,  petroleum,  and  asbestos  are  also  produced.  Coal 
occurs  in  Nova  Scotia  (Cape  Breton),  in  British  Columbia,  and  in  an 
immense  undeveloped  area  in  the  Northwest  Territory.  Copper  and 
nickel  are  found  associated  in  the  Superior  region  of  Ontario,  but 
petroleum  forms  the  most  considerable  mineral  product  of  this  prov- 
ince. Gold  occurs  in  Nova  Scotia,  in  the  Chaudiere  River  alluvium 
of  Quebec,  in  British  Columbia,  and  throughout  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory and  the  Yukon  district  (Klondike).  The  value  of  the  mineral 
products  of  the  Dominion  in  1901  is  given  at  upwards  of  $69,000,000. 

The  fisheries  of  Canada  form  a  very  prominent  feature  in  the  in- 
dustrial returns  of  the  country ;  they  are  centered  in  the  Maritime 
Provinces,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  on  the  interior 
lakes  and  rivers.  Deep  sea  and  coastwise  fisheries,  and  the  catching 
of  lobsters  are  the  principal  features  in  the  economic  life  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick.  The  oyster  trade  is  prominent  in 
Prince  Edward  Island.  The  total  value  of  the  fisheries  in  1900 
amounted  to  $11,557,639.  Many  native  Nova  Scotians  sail  in  the 
fishing  fleet  from  Gloucester,  Massachusetts ;  but  the  captains  of 
the  vessels  are  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United  States.  A  large  bulk 
of  the  catch  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  goes  to  the  canning  factories 
of  the  United  States,  there  being  no  duty  on  fresh  fish,  though  the 
canned  goods  are  dutiable. 

The  fisheries  of  British  Columbia  are  a  very  important  source  of 
wealth,  especially  the  salmon  fishery.  Under  the  general  head  of 
fisheries  is  included  the  pelagic  sealing  in  North  Pacific  waters ;  the 
fleet  for  this  is  largely  owned  in  British  Columbia. 

The  manufacturing  interests  of  Canada  are  of  minor  importance 
when  compared  with  the  production  of  raw  materials ;  though  vari- 
ous manufacturing  industries  are  carried  on,  their  products  are  chiefly 
for  domestic  consumption. 


182 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


UNITED  STATES        $179,000,000 


-80* 


125.  Commerce. — The  United  States  shares  largely  in  Canadian 
trade,  chiefly  because  of  the  close  geographical  relation  of  the  two 
countries.  There  can  be  no  better  illustration  of  the  result  of 
proximity  of  countries  in  trade  than  that  afforded  by  the  commerce 
between  the  United  States  and  its  next-door  neighbor.  Both  are 
large  producers  of  raw  material,  but  one  is  distinctly  a  manufacturing 
country  as  well,  while  the  other  is  not.  This  is  clearly  shown  in  the 
summary  of  countries  entering  into  trade  with  Canada,  where  the 
United  States  heads  the  list  of  imports  (chiefly  manufactures)  which 

enter  the  Dominion  for  con- 
sumption, while  it  stands  sec- 
ond in  the  list  of  countries  to 
which  Canadian  products  are 
exported,  though  a  consider- 
able amount  of  raw  material, 
lumber,  and  wheat  are  regu- 
larly drawn  from  Canada  for 
use  in  manufacturing  in  the 
United  States.  Great  Britain 
heads  the  export  list  because 
of  a  commercial  policy  where- 
OF  by  Canadian  goods  are  allowed 
IN  to  enter  British  ports  free  of 
duty.  Canada  imposes  a  duty 
of  one-third  less  on  imports 
from  Great  Britain  than  from  any  other  country  ("  preferential  tariff  "), 
yet  the  nearness  of  the  United  States  gives  its  goods  a  precedence, 
and  more  than  half  the  imports  of  Canada  come  from  the  United 
States. 

The  Dominion  is  well  equipped  in  the  ways  and  means  of  internal 
communication.  The  rivers  and  lakes  are  great  natural  highways  of 
commerce,  which  have  been  made  available  for  sea-going  ships  from 
the  head  of  navigation  on  Lake  Superior  to  the  ocean,  a  distance  of 


GREAT  BRITAIN  $152,000,000  —  < 


ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES       $30,000,000 


~  8% 


COMBINED  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS 
CANADA  (1900),  APPROXIMATED 
MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 

Total,  $361,000,000 


The  Dominion  of  Canada  183 

over  2700  miles.  This  has  been  effected  by  the  building  of  ship 
canals  —  the  most  famous  of  which  are  around  the  Lachine  rapids 
just  above  Montreal,  the  "Welland  Canal  between  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario,  and  the  St.  Mary's  Canal  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  The  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  from  Montreal  to  Vancouver,  a  distance  of  2906  miles, 
is  a  main  artery  of  trade  through  the  most  productive  districts,  and 
handles  enormous  quantities  of  Canadian  wheat  and  live  stock.  A 
subsidized  line  of  steamers  in  connection  with  this  great  railway,  gives 
regular  communication  between  Montreal  and  Yokohama.  An  Aus- 
tralian line  also  connects  with  the  road  at  Vancouver.  The  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  traverses  the  rich  agricultural  region  of  southern 
Ontario  and  has  extensions  of  the  line  into  United  States  territory 
with  a  terminus  at  Chicago  and  one  at  Portland,  Maine.  Through 
this  road  the  latter  city  becomes  the  winter  port  of  Montreal  when 
the  ice  has  closed  the  St.  Lawrence  to  navigation.  Trade  through 
Portland  is. by  passing  goods  through  customs  under  seals,  known  as 
bonds.  Upwards  of  18,000  miles  of  railway  are  in  operation  through- 
out the  Dominion  (1901). 

Ottawa  is  the  seat  of  government.  Montreal,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Ottawa  River  with  the  St.  Lawrence,  is  at  the  head  of  ocean  navi- 
gation, above  which  begins  the  extensive  system  of  ship  canals  and 
natural  waterways  leading  to  the  interior.  Montreal  is  the  chief  sea- 
port and  the  largest  city  of  the  Dominion.  Quebec,  nearer  the 
ocean,  commands  a  fine  harbor,  but  has  never  attained  the  commer- 
cial importance  of  Montreal ;  the  situation  of  the  latter  at  the  head  of 
navigation  and  in  relation  to  the  Ottawa  country  in  the  days  of  the  fur 
trade,  made  it  the  most  important  disbursing  and  receiving  center  of 
the  entire  region.  It  has,  furthermore,  closer  connections  with  the 
United  States  by  rail  than  has  Quebec.  Toronto  is  an  important 
Lake  port  on  the  north  shore  of  Ontario.  Halifax,  in  Nova  Scotia,  is 
the  main  seaport  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  and  is,  moreover,  a  center 
of  British  military  and  naval  power.  It  has  an  open  winter  harbor,  but 
the  distance  by  rail  to  the  interior  provinces  is  too  great  to  make  it  of 


184  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

commanding  commercial  importance.  Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  on  the 
line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  is  the  great  disbursing  center  of 
the  Northwest,  and  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  United  States. 
Vancouver  and  Victoria  are  the  chief  cities  of  British  Columbia  and 
important  centers  of  the  Pacific  trade. 

126.  Newfoundland.  —  The  island  of  Newfoundland,  lying  at  the 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  is  not  a  part  of  the  Dominion 
,of  Canada,  the  government  being  administered  by  a  governor 
appointed  by  the  British  crown  and  by  an  executive  council.  Under 
this  government  is  included  also  the  eastern  portion  of  Labrador 
which  is  separated  from  Newfoundland  by  the  narrow  strait  of  Belle 
Isle.  Newfoundland  covers  some  42,000  square  miles,  is  mountain- 
ous and  forested,  with  a  rugged  coast  line  forming  many  bays  which 
afford  good  harbors.  The  climate  is  influenced  by  the  Labrador  ice 
current,  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts  being  frequently  enveloped 
in  dense  fogs,  which,  however,  do  not  reach  inland  to  any  great  dis- 
tance. Fishing  is  the  chief  industry ;  the  value  of  dried  cod  exported 
in  1900  was  upwards  of  $5,000,000.  Cod-liver  oil,  canned  lobster 
and  pickled  herring  are  important  items  of  the  export  trade.  St. 
John's,  commanding  a  fine  land-locked  harbor  on  the  southeast 
coast,  is  the  capital  and  the  headquarters  of  the  Arctic  sealing 
fleet ;  seal  oil  and  seal  skins  are  exported  from  this  port.  Copper 
and  iron  ore,  and  iron  pyrites  are  mined  and  exported,  the  latter  go- 
ing mainly  to  Great  Britain.  Coal,  lead,  and  nickel  are  said  to  exist. 
Manufactures  and  food-stuffs  form  the  bulk  of  the  imports ;  the 
United  States  is  third,  ranking  after  Great  Britain  and  Canada,  as  a 
source  of  supply. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

117.  Compare  the  climate  on  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  British  America. 
Why  the  difference  in  the  same  latitude? 

1 1 8.  What  is  a  "  port  of  entry  "?     What  port  of  the  United  States  is  a  port  of 
entry  for  Canadian  commerce  during  a  part  of  the  year?     Why? 


The  Dominion  of  Canada  185 

119.  What  are  "bonded  goods"   in   customs  regulations?     How  does  the 
arrangement  operate  in  the  trade  of  the  United  States  through  Canada,  and  of 
Canada  through  the  United  States? 

1 20.  Consider  the  advantages  of  free  trade  between  Canada  and  the  United 
States.     Which  country  would  probably  realize  the  greater  advantage,  and  why? 

121.  What  is  a  "preferential  tariff"  and  how  does  it  operate  in  the  trade  of 
Canada? 

122.  Give  the  meaning  of   the    following   terms:   "general    tariff    system," 
"  general  and  conventional  tariff  system,"  and  "  maximum  and  minimum  tariff 
system."     (See   "  Modern   Tariff    Systems,"  published   by  Bureau  of   Statistics, 
Treasury  Department.) 

123.  The  imports  and  exports  of  Canada  have  increased  ninety-six  per  cent 
within  ten  years'  time.     What  does  this  indicate  about  the  present  trade  outlook 
in  that  Dominion? 

124.  Make  a  study  of  the  governmental  relations  of  Canada  to  the  British 
Empire. 

125.  What  is  the  prevailing  language  in  Quebec? 

126.  Discuss  this  statement  from  the  London  Chronicle,  "  There  is  room  on  the 
North  American  continent  for  two  great  nationalities,  of  which  Canada  may  well 
be  one." 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**Tyrrell,  Colonial  North  America.      Chapter  XXXVIII,  in  The  International 

Geography. 
*Dawson,  Canada  and  Newfoundland,  in   Stanford's  Compendium.      London; 

1897. 

British  America,  in  British  Empire  Series.     London;    1900. 
*Statistical  Yearbook  of  Canada.      Issued  annually  by  the  Government  Printing 

Bureau.     Ottawa,  Canada. 
** Statesman 's  Yearbook,  Annual  Issues. 
**Smith,  Canada  and  the  Canadian  Question.     Macmillan  Co. ;    1891. 


1 86 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD   IN   1902 

The  following  table  shows  the  imports  and  exports  of  the  countries 
for  which  statistics  were  received  at  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Foreign  Commerce  :  — 


COUNTRY 

IMPORTS 

EXPORTS 

United  States  
United  Kingdom  
Germany 

$  969,270,000 

2>5  73.698,6oo 

$  1,360,696,400 
a  1,379,847,300 

I(IQI.CQ7,2OO 

France  ........ 
Russia  (9  months)  ..... 

852,234,900 
I  QO,  c  38,000 

817,725,200 

303,1  1;  2,200 

Belgium  (n  months)  a  . 

402,099,000 

321,381,000 

Spain  (10  months)  b  .  .  .  .  . 
Italy  (10  months)  a  .... 

98,309,000 
288,147,000 

89,882,000 
222,04.8,000 

Austria-Hungary  (10  months)  a 
Switzerland  (6  months)           .... 
Canada*:         

381,600,000 
93,007,300 
202,791,600 
64  6^6  ooo 

423,699,000 
77,815,300 
211,725,800 

78  O7O  OOO 

Argentina  (9  months)  ..... 

7C,i£2,QOO 

I  3I.Q23,OOO 

British  India  c  ...... 
Japan  (10  months)  
Cape  Colony  (9  months)  .... 

323,581,400 
109,604,600 
99,476,100 

425,367,600 
IOI,O59,OOO 
5O,738,IOO 

a  Special  commerce. 


b  Principal  articles  only. 


c  Fiscal  years  1901-1902. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 
.  I.     MEXICO 

127.  The  Region.  — The  Republic  of  Mexico,  which  occupies  the 
narrowing  southward  extension  of  North  America,  has  an  area  of 
over  767,000  square  miles,  or  is  nearly  equal  to  the  area  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  surface  of  the  country 
appears  as  a  continuation  of  the  Cordilleran  Highland  of  western 
United  States,  and  presents  a  vast  elevated  plateau,  from  4000  to 
8000  feet  above  sea  level.  This  plateau  rises  in  a  series  of  terraces 
from  the  low  tropical  coast  strips  on  either  side.  The  plateau  is 
flanked  by  two  great  mountain  ranges,  one  trending  along  the  Pacific 
border  (Sierra  Madre  Occidental)  and  the  other  along  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  (Sierra  Madre  Oriental).  From  these  primary  axes  numerous 
secondary  ranges  branch,  separating  the  broad,  elevated  valleys  of  the 
plateau  surface.  Besides  the  mountain  topography,  numerous  large 
volcanoes  produce  characteristic  features  of  relief  in  certain  portions, 
some  of  them  reaching  above  17,000  feet.  The  soil  over  wide  areas 
of  the  volcanic  districts  is  a  deep  accumulation  of  material  that  has 
been  poured  out  from  numerous  volcanic  vents. 

A  number  of  rivers  drain  the  various  portions  of  the  Republic,  but 
they  are  of  little  value  to  navigation.  Numerous  lakes  also  occur, 
but  none  of  them  are  of  large  size.  The  coast  line  is  nowhere  deeply 
indented,  though  there  are  several  large  bays  and  a  number  of  offshore 
islands  on  both  the  Pacific  coast  and  that  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

From  the  tropical  position  of  the  country,  and  the  altitude  of  the 
plateau  region,  the  Republic  of  Mexico  enjoys  a  remarkable  range  of 

187 


1 88  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

climate.  The  narrow  coast  lands  are  entirely  tropical,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  the  interior  valleys  below  3000  feet  elevation.  A  mild 
temperate  climate  prevails  on  the  lands  lying  from  3000  to  5000 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  this  embraces  the  larger  area  of  the  plateau. 
This  portion  of  Mexico  is  said  to  enjoy  one  of  the  finest  climates  in 
the  world.  The  lands  that  lie  at  an  altitude  of  over  7000  feet  are  in 
a  zone  of  cold  temperature.  With  such  a  range  of  climate,  charac- 
teristic zones  of  vegetation  exist  in  the  direction  of  altitude,  corre- 
sponding to  a  similar  change  over  wide  extent  of  latitude.  Palms, 
rubber  trees,  and  other  forms  of  tropical  growth,  flourish  in  the 
torrid  belt  of  the  low  coast  lands  and  on  the  lower  terrace  slopes. 
These  gradually  give  way  on  the  upper  slopes  and  the  higher  valleys 
of  the  plateau,  to  a  subtropical  and  temperate  vegetation.  In  the 
latter  region,  numerous  species  of  oaks  are  characteristic.  These  in 
turn  are  succeeded  by  the  coniferous  forests  of  pine,  spruce,  and  fir 
as  representatives  of  the  higher  and  colder  regions.  These  zones  of 
climate  are  recognized  by  the  native  Mexicans  as  three  distinct 
belts  :  the  lower  hot  zone  (tierra  caliente),  the  middle  or  temperate 
zone  (tierra  templada),  and  the  upper  cold  zone  (tierra  /n'a.) 

In  general  two  well-marked  seasons  characterize  the  climate  of 
Mexico :  a  rainy  season  from  about  May  to  October,  and  a  dry 
season  during  the  other  half  of  the  year.  Throughout  the  wet  season 
downpours  of  rain  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence.  When  good 
drainage  is  secured,  the  mild  temperate  region  of  the  Mexican 
plateau  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  in  the  world. 

128.  Resources.  —  Mexico  presents  three  agricultural  zones, 
corresponding  in  a  general  way  to  the  three  climatic  zones  referred 
to  above.  The  lowland  tropical  belt  comprises  the  sugar  cane  and 
rubber  region.  The  terrace  slopes  of  the  tierra  templada  include 
the  zone  of  coffee  cultivation,  while  in  the  upper  valleys  of  the 
plateau  in  the  same  belt,  Indian  con,  r^nd  the  more  northern  cereals 
are  grown.  Mexico  stands  third  as  a  corn-producing  country,  the 
United  States  and  Austria-Hungary  outranking  it  in  this  respect. 


MEXICAN  MAGUEY  PLANTS 


MEXICAN  PULQUE  SHOP 


Mexico  and  Central  America  189 

The  production  of  cacao  is  an  industry  of  growing  importance,  as  is 
also  that  of  tobacco  ;  Mexican  tobacco  holds  a  prominent  place  in 
the  world's  markets.  Cotton  is  raised  to  some  extent,  but  the  Republic 
has  to  import  a  considerable  quantity  to  meet  the  increased  demand 
of  its  factories.  There  are  several  distinct  cotton  belts  in  the 
country.  Alfalfa  is  an  important  forage  crop.  The  forests,  which 
cover  about  one-fourth  of  the  territory,  yield  a  great  variety  of 
products  among  which  may  be  mentioned  mahogany,  cedar,  oak, 
walnut,  rosewood,  ebony,  and  other  woods,  besides  tanning  barks, 
dyestuffs,  medicinal  substances,  etc.  A  wide  range  of  fruit  culture 
prevails,  from  the  tropical  pineapples,  bananas,  mangoes,  oranges, 
limes,  etc.,  to  subtropical  and  temperate  species  as  apples,  pears, 
peaches,  apricots,  and  figs.  The  orange  is  the  only  fruit  exported  to 
any  extent.  Among  important  fiber  plants  may  be  mentioned  jute, 
sisal  hemp,  and  ixtle  (from  a  kind  of  wild  pineapple).  Sisal  hemp 
is  the  fiber  from  the  agave  or  maguey;  this  plant  also  furnishes  a 
variety  of  other  products  among  which  are  "  pulque  "  and  "  mescal  " 
—  fermented  juices  largely  used  by  natives  as  alcoholic  beverages. 
The  production  of  the  vanilla  bean  is  an  important  Mexican  in- 
dustry. The  aggregate  value  of  agricultural  exports  for  1899-1900 
amounted  to  upwards  of  $50,000,000,  more  than  double  that  of 
1892-1893. 

The  northern  and  drier  portions  of  the  plateau  are  adapted  to 
grazing,  especially  to  the  raising  of  sheep ;  sheep  raised  here  pro- 
duce a  fine  grade  of  wool.  Upwards  of  80,000  head  of  cattle  were 
exported  during  the  first  six  months  of  1900.  Horses  and  mules, 
sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  are  also  a  source  of  profit. 

The  mountainous  nature  of  Mexico  makes  it  an  abundant  source 
of  mineral  wealth.  For  a  distance  of  1600  miles  along  the  western 
chain  there  are  rich  mineral  deposits.  Both  gold  and  silver  are  mined, 
but  the  value  of  the  latter  exceeds  that  of  the  former  on  account 
of  the  larger  profits  involved.  Of  late  years  the  output  of  gold  has 
shown  a  marked  increase.  The  silver  production  is  approximately 


190  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

one-third  of  the  total  world  output  of  that  metal ;  the  great  producing 
mines  are  centered  in  Guanajuato,  Zacatecas,  and  Catorce.  Rich  and 
extensive  deposits  of  iron  occur,  and  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  cinnabar 
are  mined  with  profit.  Coal,  petroleum,  and  asphalt  occur  in  several 
localities,  but  have  not  been  exploited  to  any  extent.  Rock  salt  oc- 
curs in  crystalline  form,  and  there  are  abundant  stores  of  marble  and 
other  building  stones.  Jasper  and  the  justly  celebrated  Mexican  onyx 
are  important  products,  besides  gems  of  various  sorts  —  agate,  topaz, 
opal,  amethyst,  emerald,  etc.  —  which  occur  in  rich  deposits. 

129.  The  People.  —  The  population  of  the  Republic  is  made  up  of 
whites,  chiefly  of  Spanish  descent,  native  Indians,  and  an  admixture 
known  under  the  general  name  of  native   Mexicans.      The   entire 
population  is  upwards  of  12,000,000,  representing  a  density  of  about 
1 6  persons  to  the  square  mile.      The  people  are  largely  engaged  in 
agriculture  or  are  employed  in  the  mines.      Manufacturing  is  carried 
on  to  some  extent,  chiefly  in  the  production  of  woolen  and  cotton 
fabrics,  leather  goods,  hats,  and  pottery ;  the  bulk  of  the  manufac- 
tures are  for  domestic  uses. 

130.  Commerce.  —  Mexico  enters  more  largely  into  trade  with  the 
United  States  than  does  any  other  American  country  excepting  Canada. 
The  facilities  for  trade  are  well  developed  in  each,  but  Canada  pur- 
chases a  larger  proportion  of  her  imports  from  the  United  States  than 
does  Mexico.     This  is  undoubtedly  due  in  part  to  a  difference  in  lan- 
guage (Spanish  being  the  language  of  Mexico)  which  acts,  in  many 
cases,  as  a  barrier  to  the  establishment  of  the  fullest  trade  relations. 
In  the  decade  from  1888  to  1898  there  was  an  increase  of  114  per 
cent  in  the  exports  from  the  United  States  into  Mexico.     During  the 
same  period  Great  Britain  increased  her  exports  in  this  direction  only 
26.12  per  cent,  and  France  39.37  per  cent;  while  Germany,  with 
commendable  push  and  energy,  and  an  intelligent    regard   for  the 
demands   of  the    country,  reached  an    increase   of   163    per   cent. 
These  facts  speak  for  themselves  as  to  the  need  of  studying  foreign 
countries  in  every  detail,  both  as  to  language,  manners  and  customs, 


1 92  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

and  the  wants  of  the  people.  The  United  States'  exports  are  chiefly 
iron  and  steel  manufactures  (including  locomotives),  cotton  (both 
raw  and  manufactured),  gunpowder  and  other  explosives,  and  lumber 
and  wood  manufactures  (furniture,  etc.).  Of  the  exports  from 
Mexico  into  the  United  States,  the  chief  items  of  value  are  gold  and 
silver  (the  latter  in  both  coin,  bullion,  and  ore),  sisal  hemp,  coffee, 
cattle,  tobacco,  hides,  and  wool,  with  some  lead  and  copper.  The 
imports  from  the  United  States  nearly  balance  the  exports. 

Railroad,  telegraph,  and  telephone  communications  connect  the 
principal  centers  of  Mexico  with  one  another  and  with  the  United 
States.  There  were  upwards  of  9600  miles  of  railway  in  the  Republic 
in  1901.  A  large  coasting  trade  is  carried  on  between  Mexico  and 
the  United  States'  ports.  On  the  Gulf  coast  the  chief  ports  are  Vera 
Cruz  and  Tampico ;  the  latter  furnishes  a  much  safer  anchorage  than 
the  former.  The  ports  of  Progreso  and  Campeche  are  in  Yucatan. 
On  the  Pacific  coast  are  Mazatlan,  Acapulco,  San  Bias,  and  Manza- 
nillo.  The  City  of  Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  some  300,000,  lies  at  an  elevation  of  over  7000  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  a  progressive  city,  equipped  with  the  comforts  and 
conveniences  of  modern  life. 

II.    CENTRAL   AMERICA 

131.  Natural  Features.  — The  narrow  mountainous  stretch  of  the 
continent  from  Mexico  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  includes  the  five 
Central  American  Republics, —  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nica- 
ragua, and  Costa  Rica.  In  addition  to  these  there  is  the  colony  of 
Belize  or  British  Honduras.  The  climate  and  productions  of  these 
countries  are  essentially  the  same,  being  almost  entirely  tropical. 
The  surface  is  volcanic,  and  the  eruptive  deposits  which  cover  wide 
areas  produce  a  remarkably  fertile  soil.  The  highest  mountain  range 
lies  near  the  Pacific,  forming  the  main  watershed  and  producing  a 
bolder  coast  line  than  that  on  the  Caribbean  side.  On  the  latter  the 
land  is  comparatively  low  and  the  climate  is  unhealthy.  In  a  general 


Mexico  and  Central  America  193 

way  similar  zones  of  altitude  occur  as  in  Mexico,  though  they  are 
not  so  high,  and  the  conditions  are  much  more  tropical.  Of  the  five 
Republics,  Guatemala  is  about  equal  in  size  to  the  state  of  Georgia, 
Honduras  to  Virginia,  Salvador  to  New  Jersey,  Nicaragua  to  Louisiana, 
and  Costa  Rica  to  West  Virginia.  Belize  is  a  trifle  larger  than  Sal- 
vador. The  entire  area  covered  by  these  countries  is  considerably 
larger  than  that  covered  by  the  New  England  and  Middle  States  as  a 
whole. 

132.  Productions  and  Commerce.  —  Agriculture  is  the  chief  source 
of  livelihood  among  the  people  of  the  several  Republics.  A  very  im- 
portant industry  is  the  gathering  of  forest  products.  The  character 
of  the  products,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  depends  upon  the  altitude 
of  the  districts.  Cacao  and  indigo  are  cultivated  in  the  torrid  low- 
lands, the  former  in  the  more  moist  districts.  Coffee,  sugar  cane, 
rice,  tobacco,  and  cotton  grow  throughout  the  torrid  and  temperate 
belts.  In  the  colder  regions  of  the  higher  altitudes,  the  more  north- 
ern grains  and  the  potato  and  apple  flourish.  Sheep  and  cattle  raising 
are  important  industries  on  the  high  plateaus.  The  Guatemala  high- 
lands are  good  sheep  pastures,  while  cattle  raising  is  carried  on  most  ex- 
tensively in  Nicaragua  and  Honduras.  Rubber,  mahogany,  logwood, 
vanilla,  sarsaparilla,  and  the  balsam  of  Peru  are  among  the  chief  forest 
products  and  form  considerable  items  in  the  export  trade  of  the  sev- 
eral countries.  Bananas  and  other  tropical  fruits  are  also  produced. 
Maize  and  beans  form  the  staple  food  of  the  people  and  are  grown 
throughout  all  three  of  the  climatic  belts.  Coffee  is  the  largest  export, 
chiefly  from  Guatemala  and  Salvador ;  coffee  plantations  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  warm  temperate  slopes.  The  plantations  of  Guatemala 
are  under  the  control  of  Germans,  and  Germany  is  the  largest  im- 
porter of  Guatemala  coffee.  Hides  are  exported  in  considerable 
quantities.  As  yet  the  mineral  resources  of  the  region  are  but  little 
exploited. 

Manufacturing  is  done  on  a  small  scale  in  a  few  localities,  chiefly 
in  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  weaving.  The  principal  imports  are  cotton 
o 


194  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

goods,  breadstuffs,  provisions,  and  beverages.  In  catering  to  the 
trade  of  these  Central  American  countries  and  to  South  American 
countries  as  well,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  manufacturer 
needs  to  consider  the  peculiar  demands  of  each  country  in  regard  to 
the  use  of  articles,  styles  of  dress,  etc.  A  study  of  the  people  with  a 
view  to  supplying  their  demands  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction  in 
establishing  trade  relations. 

133.  Population  and  Chief  Towns. — The  white  population  of  the 
Central  American  Republics  is  mainly  of  Spanish  descent  with  an  in- 
fusion of  other  European  stocks.     Native  Indians  and  negroes,  and 
the  general  mixture  resulting  from  these  three  types,  form  the  larger 
proportion  of  the  population.     Spanish. is  the  prevailing  language  of 
the  different  countries. 

The  best  harbors  are  on  the  Pacific  coast.  San  Jose",  Champereco, 
and  Oc6s,  in  Guatemala,  are  Pacific  ports  carrying  on  a  considerable 
trade  in  coffee.  Acajutla,  Triumfo,  and  La  Union  are  Salvador  ports 
on  the  Pacific,  and  Amapala  is  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Honduras. 
Punta  Arenas  is  the  Pacific  port  of  Costa  Rica,  and  Corinto  and  San 
Juan  del  Sur  of  Nicaragua.  On  the  Atlantic  (Caribbean)  side  are 
Belize  (British  Honduras),  Livingston  and  Puerto  Barrios  in  Guate- 
mala ;  Puerto  Cortez  in  Honduras ;  Bluefields  and  Greytown  in 
Nicaragua,  and  Puerto  Limon  in  Costa  Rica.  The  trade  of  the 
Pacific  ports  will  be  greatly  developed  when  the  proposed  ship  canal 
is  completed,  for  it  will  bring  these  fine  harbors  on  the  most  healthful 
side  of  the  country  into  closer  relation  with  the  eastern  United  States 
and  European  ports.  Railroads  are  contemplated  and  some  partially 
built  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  seaports,  and  to  the  principal 
centers  of  coffee  production. 

134.  Trade  Relations.  —  Notwithstanding  the  great  natural  advan- 
tages which  the  Central  American  Republics  possess  in  the  way  of 
productions,    their    trade    is    backward,    owing  to    the   rugged   and 
densely  forested  character  of  the  region,  and  also  to  the  compara- 
tive sparseness  of  the  population.     What   the  region  needs  is   the 


Mexico  and  Central  America  195 

development  of  its  resources  through  enterprises  from  the  outside. 
This  is  shown  in  the  case  of  the  Guatemala  coffee  trade  with  Ger- 
many already  alluded  to.  The  native  Central  American  lacks  the 
initiative  that  is  needed  to  develop  the  land.  The  country  needs 
good  roads,  and  only  a  small  area  is  under  cultivation.  In  the 
main,  the  country  is  a  vast  extent  of  virgin  forest.  The  average 
of  population  through  the  entire  region  is  16  to  the  square  mile, 
but  this  varies  greatly  in  different  localities.  In  the  salubrious 
highlands  it  reaches  a  density,  in  some  instances,  of  285  per  square 
mile,  while  in  the  lower  torrid  belts,  it  falls  to  scarcely  more  than 
one  or  two  individuals  per  square  mile. 

Statistics  involving  the  decade  from  1887  to  1897  show  that 
during  that  time  the  United  States  increased  its  total  amount  of 
exports  to  Central  American  countries  nearly  200  per  cent,  while 
the  increase  of  British  exports  was  less  than  7  per  cent.  Germany 
appears  to  have  held  her  own  during  this  decade,  but  France  and 
Spain  have  lost.1  The  higher  slopes  of  the  templada  belt  are  health- 
ful, and  Europeans  have  established  plantations  here  on  which  they 
reside.  One  of  the  chief  drawbacks  to  placing  capital  in  the  region 
is  the  unstable  political  condition  of  these  Republics. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND   TOPICS 

127.  Is  "  Middle  America  "  a  suitable  name  for  the  territory  lying  between  the 
United  States  and  South  America? 

128.  Trace  the  correspondences  of  altitude,  climate,  and  productions  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America. 

129.  Study  the  mineral  resources  of  Mexico  indicating  the  probable  future  of 
mining  in  that  country. 

130.  What  has  been  the  influence  of  railroads  in  the  commercial  union  of 
Mexico  and  the  United  States? 

131.  What  is  the  relation  of  cattle  raising  in  Mexico  to  meat-packing  industries 
in  the  United  States?     (See  p.  144.) 

1  See  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  for  August,  1901,  page  507. 


196  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

132.  With  Canada,  Mexico,  and  Central  America  as  examples,  what  can  you 
say  about  nearness  of  a  country  as  a  factor  in  trade  ?  Summarize  this  under  the 
head,  Trade  with  Neighboring  Countries. 

!33«  What  were  the  chief  reasons  that  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  Nicara- 
guan  route  for  an  Isthmian  Canal  (1903)  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*Keane,  Central  and  South  America,  2  vols.     Stanford's  Compendium. 

**Chapters  XL,  XLI,  and  XLII  in  The  International  Geography. 

**Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  Treasury  Department. 
American  Commerce.  August,  1901. 

Lummis,  The  Awakening  of  a  Nation  (Mexico).     Harper  and  Brothers. 

Rodway,  The  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main.     London;    1896. 

**Mexico,  A  Geographical  Sketch.  Bureau  of  American  Republics,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.;  1900. 

^Statesman's  Yearbook,  annually. 

Romero,  Mexico  a nd  the  United  States.     New  York,  Put nams;    1898. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  WEST  INDIES 

135.  Cuba. — A  close  commercial  relation  exists  between  Cuba  and 
the  United  States,  tending  to  mutual  advantage.  This  advantage  is  a 
natural  result  of  differences  in  geographical  position.  Cuba,  the  largest 
of  the  West  India  Islands,  is  situated  just  within  the  tropics.  It 
has  an  area  of  36,000  square  miles  and  a  population  of  over  a 
million  and  a  half,  made  up  of  mixed  races  and  different  nationali- 
ties, though  people  of  Spanish  descent,  and  negroes,  predominate. 
Three  physical  areas  characterize  the  surface  of  the  island :  ( i)  an 
eastern  mountainous  region;  (2)  a  central  plain  region,  with  scat- 
tered hills ;  and  (3)  a  mountain  axis  in  the  western  part,  the 
sides  of  which  slope  into  valleys.  The  coast  line  is  irregular  and 
in  many  parts  bold,  descending  steeply  to  a  narrow  strip  or  beach 
of  fringing  coral.  The  irregularity  and  boldness  produce  many 
land-locked  harbors  which  have  played  an  important  part  in  the 
military  defence  of  the  island.  Cuba  is  watered  by  numerous 
rivers  which  are  remarkable  for  their  volume.  Areas  of  swamp 
land  exist  in  which  many  streams  disappear,  the  most  notable 
being  the  Zapata,  a  brackish  swamp  covering  some  600  square 
miles  along  the  southern  coast.  The  tropical  character  of  the 
climate  produces  fairly  uniform  conditions,  and  there  is  an  abun- 
dant rainfall,  a  rainy  season  prevailing  from  May  to  October. 
The  island  lies  in  the  northern  trade-wind  zone,  and  these  winds 
cause  heavy  downfalls  of  rain  on  the  higher  windward  mountain 
slopes.  The  island,  like  others  of  the  West  Indies,  is  in  the  path- 
way of  tropical  hurricanes  which  are  liable  to  do  much  damage 

197 


198  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

along  the  coasts.  The  rich  soil  and  the  abundance  of  heat  and 
moisture  sustain  a  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  one-tenth  of  the  entire  area  of  Cuba  is  under  cultiva- 
tion and  that  about  one- fourth  is  covered  with  forests. 

The  chief  vegetable  products  are  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  coffee,  ba- 
nanas, maize,  oranges,  and  pineapples,  named  in  the  order  of  their 
importance.  Cuba  stands  first  among  all  countries  of  the  world  as  a 
producer  of  cane  sugar;  the  great  crop  of  1893-1894  amounted  to  over 
a  million  tons,  the  vast  bulk  of  which  was  exported.  In  1901  the  crop 
reached  600,000  tons.  The  upland  soils  of  Cuba  are  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  sugar  cane,  being  exceedingly  fertile  and 
producing  a  sugar  of  very  superior  quality.  A  single  planting  yields  a 
crop  for  successive  years,  and  no  fertilizers  are  used. 

Tobacco,  though  not  so  large  a  crop  as  sugar,  is  more  profitable 
for  the  extent  of  land  cultivated.  Though  grown  throughout  the 
island,  the  chief  center  of  tobacco  cultivation  is  the  Vuelta  Abajo 
district  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  de  los  Organos,  in  the 
Province  of  Pinar  del  Rio.  The  peculiar  aroma  of  this  tobacco  has 
created  a  market  without  competition.  The  tobacco  export  of  the 
island  (1900-1901)  amounted  to  $16,055, 295.  Besides  this  the  manu- 
factures of  tobacco  amounted  to  over  $12,000,000.  Upwards  of 
300,000  bales  of  tobacco  are  exported,  and  the  remainder  made 
into  cigars  and  cigarettes  in  the  factories  of  Havana. 

Besides  the  great  sugar  and  tobacco  estates  there  are  many  small 
farm  holdings,  devoted  to  the  raising  of  fruit,  mainly  pineapples,  ba- 
nanas, and  oranges.  Coffee  production  has  declined  under  the  com- 
petition with  other  coffee-producing  countries.  Horses  and  cattle  are 
raised  to  some  extent  on  the  grazing  lands  of  the  central  and  south- 
eastern provinces.  The  forests  of  Cuba  contain  valuable  timber 
trees,  also  fiber  plants,  with  dye,  resin,  gum,  and  oil-yielding  species. 
Mahogany,  lignum-vitse,  cedar,  cocus  wood  (used  in  the  manufacture 
of  reed  instruments),  and  Cedrela  (used  in  cabinet  ware  and  cigar 
boxes)  are  among  the  timber  trees.  Logwood  and  fustic  are  important 


The   West  Indies  199 

dyewoods.  Aside  from  the  forests  included  in  private  estates,  the 
government  controls  over  a  million  acres  of  forest  land. 

Iron  ores,  manganese,  copper,  asphaltum,  and  salt  are  the  chief 
minerals  which  have  been  developed,  though  in  earlier  times  some 
silver  and  gold  were  mined.  Iron  ores,  chiefly  red  and  brown  hema- 
tite, are  the  most  important  metallic  products.  Salt  deposits  occur 
in  pans  or  shallows  along  the  northern  keys  where  large  quantities  of 
the  substance  are  prepared.  Limestone  is  the  chief  building  mate- 
rial used  throughout  the  island ;  it  is  widely  distributed  as  an  ancient 
coral  base  and  forms  the  capping  of  extensive  plateaus.  Lime 
products,  as  cement  and  plaster,  are  also  extensively  used. 

Politically,  Cuba  is  divided  into  six  provinces,  —  Pinar  del  Rio,  in 
the  extreme  west,  Havana,  Matanzas,  Santa  Clara,  Puerto  Principe, 
and  Santiago  de  Cuba,  the  last  forming  the  southeastern  portion  of 
the  island.  Upwards  of  a  thousand  miles  of  railroad  connect  the 
principal  cities  of  the  island  and  reach  through  the  great  sugar  and 
tobacco  districts.  Many  of  the  large  sugar  estates  have  private  rail- 
ways, and  the  cane  is  thus  carried  to  the  mills  on  the  estates,  where 
it  is  crushed,  the  juice  pressed  out  and  converted  into  crystalline  sugar 
and  molasses  by  the  most  improved  methods.  The  numerous  good 
harbors  have  developed  an  extensive  sea-going  trade. 

Havana  (Habana),  the  capital,  on  the  northern  coast  in  the 
western  part  of  the  island,  is  the  commercial  center  of  the  West 
Indies.  It  has  a  population  of  upwards  of  235,000.  Matanzas  and 
Cardenas  are  ports  of  some  note  on  the  northern  coast.  Santiago  is 
on  the  southern  coast  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  island.  It  is  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Havana.  Farther  west,  on  the  northern  shore,  is 
Cienfuegos.  Puerto  Principe  is  an  important  interior  town  in  the 
province  of  the  same  name.  Many  smaller  seaports  are  scattered 
along  the  coasts  of  the  island. 

Cuba  holds  a  peculiar  position  in  regard  to  trade  from  the  fact  that 
though  an  agricultural  country  of  remarkable  fertility,  it  yet  draws  its 
food  supplies  mainly  from  without.  Food-stuffs  formed  5 1  per  cent 


2OO  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

of  the  total  imports  into  Havana  in  1899.  This  is  undoubtedly 
owing  largely  to  the  long  years  of  its  dependency  when  sugar  was 
grown  to  the  exclusion  of  food  crops,  to  replenish  the  coffers  of  Spain. 
The  future  welfare  of  the  island  probably  lies  in  the  direction  of  in- 
creasing the  productive  area  devoted  to  maize  and  other  food  plants. 

The  bulk  of  Cuban  trade  is  with  the  United  States.  More 
than  half  of  the  combined  value  of  imports  and  exports  are  with  this 
country.  The  United  States  furnished  a  little  less  than  half  of  the 
Cuban  imports  (1900-1901).  England  and  Spain  each  furnished 
a  little  over  15  per  cent  of  the  value  of  imports  for  the  fiscal  year  of 
1899-1900.  England  received  over  10  per  cent  of  the  value  of  ex- 
ports, and  Germany  and  trance  each  about  5  per  cent.  A  consider- 
able number  of  cattle  are  imported  from  Colombia,  and  dried  beef 
from  Uruguay.  Porto  Rico  supplied  the  bulk  of  the  coffee.  Being 
a  purely  agricultural  country,  Cuba  imports  nearly  all  manufactured 
products.  The  bulk  of  the  cotton  and  linen  manufactures  comes  from 
England,  woolens  from  both  England  and  France,  silk  goods  from 
France,  engines,  machinery,  and  wheat  flour  from  the  United  States. 
The  United  States  takes  nearly  a  third  of  the  cigars  exported,  while 
Spain  takes  over  a  third  of  the  cigarettes.  A  large  amount  of  Cuban 
leaf  tobacco  is  made  up  into  cigars  at  Key  West,  Florida.  The 
bulk  of  the  sugar  finds  its  way  to  the  United  States.  Fruits,  honey, 
wax,  wood,  cacao,  and  iron  ores  form  minor  exports.  With  enter- 
prise and  capital  directed  to  the  developing  of  resources,  the  outlook 
for  Cuba  in  the  world's  trade  is  most  promising. 

136.  The  Caribbean  and  its  Islands. — The  Caribbean  Sea  has 
been  not  inaptly  termed,  the  "American  Mediterranean."  From 
the  coast  of.  Florida  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  there  stretches 
a  rampart  of  island  clusters,  volcanic  and  coral  in  formation,  which 
shuts  this  almost  land-locked  sea  from  the  deeper  waters  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  great  island  of  Cuba  stretches  across  its  northern 
border,  nearly  shutting  off  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This 
island  and  that  of  Haiti,  Porto  Rico,  and  Jamaica  are  collectively 


s  -p 


202 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


known  as  the  Greater  Antilles.  North  of  them  and  approaching 
the  Florida  coast  is  the  Bahama  group,  while  to  the  eastward, 
strung  like  a  bent  bow  toward  the  Atlantic,  is  the  chain  of  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  comprising  the  Danish  ^st  Indies  of  the  Virgin 
group ;  Curacao  and  others  of  the  Du  West  Indies ;  the  Lee- 
ward chain  (including  the  Virgins  and  other  British  islands,  Antigua, 


TRACKS  OF  STORMS 

PROCEEDING 

FROM  THE  TROPICS  IN 
AUGUST 


PATHS  OF  WEST  INDIA  HURRICANES 

Dominica,  Montserrat,  St.  Kitts,  and  others)  ;  the  French  islands 
of  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique ;  the  Windward  chain  (including 
St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and  Grenada)  ;  the  Barbados  (the  most 
eastern  of  the  West  Indies)  ;  Tobago,  and  Trinidad.  Many  smaller 
members  of  the  group  are  mere  rocky  islets  or  cays  (keys).  All 
are  mountainous,  and  some  intensely  volcanic.  The  whole  world 
was  horrified  at  the  recent  destruction  of  life  in  Martinique.  The 


JAMAICA  PINEAPPLE  PLANTATION 


TRINIDAD  ASPHALT  LAKE 


The    West  Indies  203 

entire  archipelago  represents  the  highest  ridges  of  a  sunken 
mountain  axis  that  once  rose  from  an  extended  land  surface. 

The  climate  is  altogether  /tropical,  tempered  by  the  northeast 
trade  winds  which  blow  continuously  and  with  force  from  October 
to  March,  falling  away  somewhat  through  the  summer  months. 
The  trades  hurl  the  surf  against  the  windward  coasts  of  the  islands, 
while  the  western  or  leeward  coasts  are  protected  and  calm.  All 
the  islands  of  the  West  Indies  lie  in  the  hurricane  track  and  are 
frequently  devastated  by  fierce  storms. 

137.  Productions  and  Trade.  —  Tropical  fruits,  cacao,  coffee, 
spices,  tobacco,  woods,  and  various  other  products  are  abundant, 
but  the  culture  of  the  sugar  cane  is  the  most  important  enterprise 
in  all  the  islands.  As  Rodway  remarks,  "The  future  of  the  West 
Indies  is  bound  up  with  the  future  of  cane  sugar;  other  tropical 
products  seem  likely  always  to  remain  of  secondary  importance." 
Depending  so  largely  upon  the  cane,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
commercial  life  of  the  West  Indies  received  a  setback  from  the 
bounties  offered  by  several  European  governments  to  encourage 
the  development  of  beet  sugar  production.  This,  together  with 
civil  strife  and  misgovernment,  has  brought  many  of  the  islands 
to  a  very  low  financial  status. 

The  chief  imports  of  the  West  Indies  are  food-stuffs,  beverages, 
and  general  manufactures,  including  hardware,  machinery,  cotton 
goods,  and  furniture.  The  United  States'  share  in  the  trade  is 
considerable.  The  West  Indian  imports  in  1897  amounted  to 
upwards  of  $137,000,000,  of  which  the  United  States  contributed 
about  23  per  cent. 

The  volume  of  trade  with  the  Bahamas  amounts  to  more 
than  $1,000,000  annually;  the  principal  imports  into  the  United 
States  from  these  islands  are  pineapples  and  other  tropical  fruits, 
preserved  fruits,  sisal  hemp,  sponges,  and  tortoise  shell.  A  great 
variety  of  manufactured  products  are  exported  there  from  the 
United  States.  More  than  one-half  of  the  entire  products  of 


2O4  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Jamaica  is  exported  to  the  United  States.  Coal  and  a  variety 
of  manufactured  products  are  imported  from  this  country,  and 
there  has  lately  been  a  marked  increase  in  the  imports  of  raw 
materials  of  various  sorts.  All  this  is  in  the  face  of  direct  competi- 
tion with  Great  Britain  which  has  a  subsidized  line  of  steamships 
in  the  trade  with  her  own  colony. 

The  United  States  sends  a  variety  of  manufactures  and  food-stuffs 
(including  canned  goods)  to  the  Leeward  Islands.  With  Haiti  our 
trade  for  the  fiscal  year  of  1899  exceeded  $2,000,000  worth  of 
goods,  the  exports  to  this  country  in  the  same  year  amounting  to 
little  more  than  half  this  sum.  A  vast  field  is  open  for  the 
introduction  of  American  machinery  in  the  sugar  industry  of  the 
island.  Trinidad,  aside  from  sugar  and  cacao,  is  commercially 
important  from  its  great  lake  of  asphalt,  the  material  being  an 
export  of  importance.  (See  illustration  opposite  p.  202.) 

There  has  been  a  decline  in  the  trade  between  the  West  Indies 
and  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  exports  from  the  islands, 
during  the  past  few  years,  owing  undoubtedly  to  the  reduction  in 
the  price  of  sugar  (as  a  result  of  the  growth  of  the  beet  sugar  in- 
dustry) and  also  to  the  long  period  of  war  in  Cuba  which  resulted 
in  the  destruction  of  vast  areas  of  sugar  cane  and  other  products. 

The  West  Indies  as  a  whole  are  densely  populated,  the  islands 
being  peopled  by  some  6,000,000  inhabitants,  representing  an 
average  of  647  persons  to  the  square  mile.  The  various  islands 
are  connected  by  telegraph  with  one  another  and  with  North  and 
South  America.  Numerous  steamship  lines  are  in  operation  be- 
tween the  important  ports  of  the  islands  and  those  of  the  United 
States  and  Europe.  A  large  number  of  sailing  vessels  are  also 
engaged  in  the  trade.  The  islands  are  divided  up  as  colonial 
possessions  of  several  European  countries  with  the  exception  of 
Cuba  and  Haiti;  the  latter  contains  the  two  negro  Republics  of 
Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo. 

138.    Bermudas. — The  Bermuda  Islands  are  situated  on  a  coral 


The    West  Indies 


205 


bank  580  miles  off  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States.  The 
islands  are  of  coral  formation;  and  they  are  well  to  the  north 
in  the  surface  drift  of  warm  water  known  as  the  Gulf  Stream. 
The  Bermudas  have  an  area  of  20  square  miles  with  a  popula- 
tion of  some  15,000  souls;  they  form  a  colony  of  Great  Britain. 
Hamilton,  the  capital  and  chief  seaport,  is  a  British  garrison  and 
naval  station.  Owing  to  the  mild  oceanic  influences,  even  though 
the  soil  is  poor,  the  islands  have  developed  an  important  industry  in 
the  growing  of  early  vegetables  and  the  cultivation  of  various  sub- 
tropical products.  The  exports  are  potatoes,  onions,  and  lily  bulbs, 
which  are  shipped  mostly  to  New  York.  The  Bermuda  trade,  both 
export  and  import,  is  almost  altogether  with  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  A  regular  line  of  steamers  runs  between  New  York  and 
Hamilton,  a  distance  of  677  miles,  and  the  islands  are  connected  by 
telegraph  with  Nova  Scotia  and  with  Turks  Island  and  Jamaica. 


THE  WORLD'S   PRODUCTION  OF  BEET  AND   CANE  SUGAR 


YEARS 

BEET 

CANE 

l87I-l872 

Tons 
I,O2O,OOO 

Tons 

I.CQQ.OOO 

1879-1880      

1,4.02.000 

1.  8C2.OOO 

1880   1800 

•?,6  7^,000 

2  060  OOO 

1899-1900      

5,510,000 

2,904,000 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

134.  Why  should  there  be  special  reciprocal   advantages   in   trade   between 
Cuba  and  the  United  States? 

135.  What  is  the  total  consumption  of  sugar  per  capita  in  the  United  States, 
and  what  proportion  of  this  is  imported?     How  much  is  imported  from  Cuba  ? 

136.  What  advantages  does  Cuba  enjoy  in  the  raising  of  sugar  as  compared 
with  Louisiana? 


206  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

137.  Show  how  better  sanitary  conditions  in  Havana  have  largely  eliminated 
the  dangers  from  yellow  fever.     What  does  this  indicate  about  the  occupation 
of  the  tropics? 

138.  What  proportion  of  the  trade  of  the  British  West  Indies   is  with   the 
Mother  Country,  and  what  proportion  is  with  the  United  States?     What  deduc- 
tion can  you  make  ? 

139.  Compare  the  Caribbean  with  the  Mediterranean  as  a  trade  center.     What 
will  be  the  effect  of  an  Isthmian  Canal  upon  trade  in  the  Caribbean  region  ? 

140.  What   are   the   special  qualities  of  Cuban   tobacco,  and   can  these  be 
secured  in  tobacco  raised  in  other  parts  of  the  world? 

141.  Make  a  comparison  of  the  volcanic  nature  of  the  West  Indies  with  that 
of  the  neighboring  regions  of  Mexico  with  Central  America. 

142.  Make  a  study  of  Asphalt;  its  Uses  and  Sources  of  Supply. 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

** Statesman 's  Yearbook. 
*Clark,  Commercial  Cuba. 
**Cul>a  in  The  International  Geography. 

Porter,  Industrial  and  Commercial  Cuba.     Washington;    1899. 
*R.  T.  Hill,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  etc.     New  York  and  London;    1898. 
Rod  way,  The  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main.     London;    1896. 
Heilprin,  The  Bermuda  Islands.     Philadelphia;    1889. 

*  World's  Sugar  Production  and  Consumption.     (1800-1900.)      Monthly    Sum- 
mary of  Commerce  and  Finance,  Treasury  Department;  November,  1902. 
** American  Commerce.     Monthly  Summary,  etc.;  August,  1901. 


CHAPTER  XV 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  COUNTRIES 

139.  General  Features  of  South  American  Trade.  —  It  is  a  notice- 
able fact  that  at  present,  commercial  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  other  American  countries  become  less  satisfactory  the 
farther  we  proceed  southward.  Our  trade  with  Mexico  is  growing  on 
a  firmly  established  basis,  and  .a  tolerably  close  connection  exists 
between  the  two  Republics  through  the  medium  of  the  railroad  and 
the  telegraph.  With  the  Central  American  Republics,  commercial 
relations,  though  by  no  means  unsatisfactory,  are  still  open  to  improve- 
ment, and  the  same  is  true  of  the  West  Indies.  In  the  case  of  South 
American  countries,  however,  there  is  a  marked  falling  off  in  trade 
with  us  as  compared  with  that  with  European  countries.  The  expla- 
nation of  this  is  in  the  failure  of  the  United  States  to  meet  a  geo- 
graphical fact  by  proper  means  of  communication,  and,  likewise, 
a  failure  to  become  more  generally  acquainted  with  the  needs,  lan- 
guages, and  customs  of  South  American  peoples. 

As  to  the  geographical  fact,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  eastern  por- . 
tion  of  South  America  juts  out  like  a  huge  elbow,  with  Cape  St. 
Roque  at  its  extremity.  This  point  is  at  least  2600  miles  east  of  the 
meridian  of  New  York,  and  renders  the  distance  traversed  by  steamers 
between  New  York  and  the  South  American  trade  centers  beyond 
this  projection  only  a  trifle  less  than  the  distance  between  them  and 
the  ports  of  Germany  and  England.  In  the  absence  of  any  direct 
communication  across  the  Isthmus,  the  countries  on  the  western  side 
of  South  America  are  practically  as  far  removed  from  the  eastern 
manufacturing  portion  of  the  United  States  as  they  are  from  Europe. 
This  renders  necessary  the  long  and  arduous  Cape  Horn  route,  or  the 

207 


208 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


vastly  more  expensive  railroad  transportation  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
reshipment  from  thence  to  western  South  American  ports.  The  bare 
fact  of  being  located  in  the  same  hemisphere  is  thus  offset  by  geo- 
graphical barriers,  and  puts  the  United  States,  so  far  as  distance  is  con- 
cerned, on  practically  the  same  footing  as  are  the  countries  of  western 


vs 

BARBADOS  "aSt 


^ 


S54&»« 
r  v  TB*!k~- 

r  //4f^a 
r'  ' 


TRADE^MAP  H 

SOUTH  TMERICA 

RAILWAYS  IN  OPERATION 

\ RAILWAYS  PROJECTED 

STEAMSHIP  LINES 

DISTANCES  ON  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES 
ARE  GIVEN   IN  NAUTICAL  MILES 

SCALE_OF  MILES 
>0°  o     200   400   600  800         90 


y  yf 


BORMAV  *  CO.,  N.T 


Europe.  With  the  countries  that  border  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  — 
Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Guiana  —  our  trade  relations  are  more 
favorable,  showing  clearly  the  effects  of  the  barrier  of  greater  distance 
in  trade.  Yet  even  with  Caribbean  countries,  our  trade  is  far  from 
satisfactory. 


South  American  Countries  209 

This  unsatisfactory  relation  is  due  in  part  to  the  failure  of  the 
United  States  to  meet  the  conditions  by  putting  into  operation  lines 
of  steamships  between  our  ports  and  those  of  South  America,  and,  in 
part,  to  the  neglect  of  merchants  in  not  studying  the  requirements  on 
which  South  American  trade  is  based.  The  United  States  turns  out 
manufactures  which  for  excellence  of  quality,  and  abundance  and  variety 
are  unsurpassed.  The  things  needful  are  to  get  the  goods  to  the  mar- 
kets and  to  create  a  demand  for  them.  The  exports  of  the  United 
States  to  European  countries  are  far  in  excess  of  the  imports  from  those 
countries.  To  offset  this  disadvantage,  many  steamers,  after  discharging 
goods  of  the  United  States  at  European  ports,  bring  out  full  cargoes 
of  English,  German,  and  other  European  manufactures  for  South 
America,  where  they  reload  with  tropical  products  for  the  United 
States,  thus  making  the  triangular  voyage  with  full  cargoes  and  conse- 
quent profit  to  the  owners.  Again,  ships  that  have  carried  our  goods 
to  Europe  bring  back  return  cargoes  of  South  American  products 
that  have  formerly  been  imported.  Thus  we  lose  the  best  market  for 
our  manufactured  goods  and  buy  South  American  products  at  the 
greatest  disadvantage.  It  is  readily  seen  that  by  this  method  the 
United  States'  manufactures  tend  to  be  excluded  from  South  American 
markets  or  to  reach  them  only  through  foreign  hands. 

What  is  needed  for  South  American  trade  is  regular  steamer 
service  coupled  with  an  intelligent  understanding  on  the  part  of 
our  merchants  and  manufacturers,  as  to  the  life  and  needs  of  the 
different  peoples.  It  is  only  by  such  means  that  we  may  hope  to 
gain  a  fair  share  of  the  South  American  trade,  and  to  increase  our 
exports  to  this  continent ;  they  now  amount  to  only  about  one-third 
of  our  imports  from  the  same  territory. 

140.  Regional  Geography  of  South  America. — The  continent  of 
South  America  has  an  area  of  7,000,000  square  miles,  being  some- 
what smaller  than  North  America.  The  greater  portion  lies  within 
the  tropics ;  the  narrowing  southward  extension  only  is  in  the 
temperate  zone.  The  coast  line  is  remarkably  even,  there  being 
p 


2io  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

nowhere  any  deep  inlets  or  gulfs,  excepting  the  Darien  and  Vene- 
zuelan gulfs  on  the  northern  coast,  a  few  baylike  indentations  on  the 
eastern  coast,  and  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  on  the  western  side. 

The  entire  continent  presents  three  well-marked  physical  areas  : 
(i)  the  Eastern  Highlands;  (2)  the  Central  Lowlands;  and  (3) 
the  Andes  Highland  or  Western  Cordillera. 

(1)  The   Eastern   Highlands   form   two   comparatively  low   pla- 
teaus, —  the  Guiana  Highland  and  the  Brazil  Highland ;  these  are 
separated   by  the  valley   of  the   lower   Amazon.     They  consist   of 
ancient   crystalline  and    stratified    rocks,    representing   a  very   old 
land  surface  which  has  been  much   denuded.     The  average  eleva- 
tion is  between  1000  and  5000  feet  above  sea  level. 

(2)  The  Central  Lowlands,  except   the  Pampas  and  Patagonia 
to  the  south,  are  occupied   by  the  three   great  river  basins,  —  the 
Orinoco,  the  Amazon,  and  the  La  Plata.     These  three  rivers  and 
their   tributaries    form   a   remarkable   series   of   waterways,    flowing 
through  the  interior  of  the  continent  and  across  its  long  eastern  or 
Atlantic  Slope.     The  Orinoco  rises  in  the  higher  western  portion  of 
the    Guiana  Highland,   receiving  tributaries  also  from  the    eastern 
and   southern   slopes    of   the    Cordillera    in   Colombia   and   Vene- 
zuela, and  skirting  the  western   and   northern   base   of  the   high- 
land, empties  into  the  Atlantic   through  a  vast  delta.     One  of  its 
upper   tributaries,   the   Cassiquiare,  is   remarkable   for   its   connec- 
tion with  the  Rio  Negro,  a  tributary  of  the  Amazon.     The  Amazon 
Basin,  the  largest  in  the  world,  occupies  a  vast  area  in  the  equato- 
rial portion  of  the  continent.     The  main  river  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  large  rivers  which   flow  from  the  Peruvian  Cordillera. 
It  is  joined  along  its  course  by  numerous  other  streams  almost  as 
large  as  itself,  which  swell  its  waters  into  a  mighty  flood  that  rolls 
seaward   through  a  dense   forest   tract,  known  as   the  selvas,  and 
empties  into  the  Atlantic  by  an  enormous  delta  at  the  equator. 

South  of  the  Brazil  Highland,  and  lying  between  it  and  the 
Western  Cordillera,  is  the  La  Phata  Basin,  drained  by  two  rivers, 


South  American  Countries 


211 


the  Uruguay  and  the  Parana.  The  former  drains  the  southern 
part  of  the  Brazil  Highland,  while  the  Parana  and  its  tributary,  the 
Paraguay,  rise  in  the  central  part  of  the  Highland  and  the  Matto 
Grosso  heights  (the  water  parting  of  the  La  Plata  and  the 
Amazon  basins)  at  no  great  distance  from  the  head  streams  of  the 
Madeira  and  other 
southern  tributaries 
of  the  Amazon. 

(3)  The  Andes  or 
Cordilleran  Highland 
may  be  divided  into 
two  portions,  —  the 
Southern  or  Main 
Cordillera  of  the  An- 
des, extending  from 
the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  the  continent 
to  the  Gulf  of  Guaya- 
quil, and  the  North- 
ern Cordillera  beyond 
this.  The  Main  Cor- 
dillera consists  of  two 
ranges,  an  eastern  and 
a  western,  between 
which  runs  a  great 
parallel  valley.  To- 
ward the  south,  a  de- 
pression of  the  land 
has  given  entry  to  the  sea  at  various  points,  producing  a  rugged 
coast  line,  with  many  fjord-like  inlets.  A  complete  severance  of 
the  continental  land  mass  at  one  place  forms  the  Strait  of  Magellan. 
The  Northern  Cordillera,  in  the  Andes  of  Ecuador,  consists  of  two 
parallel  ranges,  inclosing  a  lofty  plateau-like  valley.  These  two  ranges 


212  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

divide  into  four  ranges  with  deep  valleys  between  them.  In  Colom- 
bia one  range  flanks  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo,  and  the  other  trends 
eastward  as  the  Caribbean  Highland.  This  latter,  submerged,  forms 
the  chain  of  the  West  India  Islands.  The  entire  extent  of  the 
Cordillera  is  lofty  and  of  a  volcanic  nature ;  numerous  high  volca- 
noes rise  from  the  ranges.1 

The  countries  of  South  America  may  be  grouped,  roughly,  into 
two  main  divisions,  —  those  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  and  those  of 
the  Andes  Highland.  The  former  includes  Venezuela,  Guiana, 
Brazil,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and  Argentina;  the  latter,  Colombia, 
Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chile. 

I.  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  SLOPE 

141.  Venezuela.  —  Venezuela  borders  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  and 
presents  three  physical  regions,  —  the  ranges  of  the  Cordillera  and 
Caribbean  Highland  on  the  west  and  north,  the  llanos  or  plains  of 
the  Orinoco,  and  the  Guiana  Highland.  The  climate  is  tropical, 
though  the  mountain  slopes  furnish  the  conditions  of  higher  lati- 
tude, as  in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  produce  vegeta- 
tion of  the  temperate  regions.  The  entire  area  is  a  little  larger 
than  Texas,  Indian  Territory,  Oklahoma,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona 
combined.  The  country  is  for  the  greater  part  covered  by  a  virgin 
tropical  forest.  The  population  consists  of  native  Indians,  whites 
and  negroes,  with  an  average  density  of  about  four  to  the  square 
mile.  Spanish  is  the  language  spoken.  According  to  the  natural 
features  of  the  different  districts,  the  industries  are  either  agricultural, 
pastoral,  or  the  gathering  of  the  forest  products.  Of  the  agricultural 
industries,  coffee  forms  the  chief  product ;  the  area  under  coffee  cul- 
tivation is  about  200,000  acres  (divided  into  some  33,000  estates). 
The  yearly  export  of  coffee  is  about  100,000,000  pounds.  Cacao 
is  also  an  important  item,  both  in  cultivation  and  shipment ;  there 
are  about  5000  estates  which  grow  this  product.  Sugar  cane 

1  International  Geography,  pp.  813-818. 


South  American  Countries  213 

is  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  the  removal  of  a  prohibi- 
tion on  sugar  importation  has  reduced  the  output.  Cereals  are 
grown  in  the  higher  districts.  The  llanos  of  the  Orinoco  and  the 
grassy  savannas  throughout  the  region,  furnish  an  abundant  pasturage 
for  vast  herds  of  cattle  and  horses.  Sheep,  goats,  and  pigs  are 
also  raised.  This  stock-raising  industry,  together  with  the  agricul- 
tural pursuits  in  general,  employ  about  one-fifth  of  the  population. 
The  chief  of  the  wild  forest  products  which  are  gathered  by  the  natives, 
are  vanilla,  tonga  beans,  caoutchouc  (India  rubber),  and  copaiba. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Venezuela  is  considerable.  Gold  is  worked 
in  certain  districts,  and  silver,  copper,  and  iron  occur  abundantly. 
Other  metals,  as  lead  and  tin,  -also  exist,  as  well  as  several  important 
non-metallic  substances,  —  as  sulphur,  petroleum,  coal,  asphalt,  salt, 
kaolin,  etc.  Most  of  these  mineral  resources  are  undeveloped.  This 
is  especially  the  case  with  petroleum  and  the  great  lakes  of  asphalt. 
Salt  mining  is  at  present  a  government  monopoly.  An  American 
company  is  engaged  in  opening  up  iron  mines  on  the  lower  Orinoco. 
On  the  north  coast  the  natives  are  engaged  in  pearl  fishing  and  in 
the  gathering  of  sponges  and  tortoise  shells.  There  are  no  manu- 
facturing industries  worthy  of  note,  manufactures  being  almost  alto- 
gether imported ;  the  exception  to  this  is  in  the  making  of  hats, 
garments,  and  the  like,'  for  local  consumption,  but  these  articles  are 
of  inferior  quality. 

Coffee,  cacao,  and  hides  form  the  chief  exports.  Coffee  is  the 
staple.  Other  exports  are  goat  and  deer  skins,  rubber,  copra,  tobacco, 
copaiba,  fustic,  sugar,  cattle,  etc.  Iron  and  textile  manufactures, 
machinery,  timber,  cement,  coal,  and  coal  oil  are  the  chief  articles 
of  import.  The  volume  of  Venezuela's  trade  is  divided  between 
the  United  States,  France,  Germany,  England,  and  Spain.  Of  this 
2  7  per  cent  of  the  imports  are  from  the  United  States,  the  larger 
proportion  of  the  remainder  are  from  'France.  This  percentage 
of  import  trade  with  the  United  States  is  larger  than  that  of  any 
other  South  American  country  excepting  Colombia. 


214  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Like  all  other  South  American  countries,  Venezuela  is  poorly 
equipped  with  highways ;  the  roads  are  mostly  primitive,  and  goods 
must  be  transported  into  the  interior  on  pack  animals.  Upwards 
of  500  miles  of  railroad  are  in  operation,  mainly  between  the 
productive  agricultural  districts  and  the  ports  on  the  Caribbean. 
Only  Venezuelan  vessels  are  allowed  to  engage  in  the  coasting 
trade. 

Caracas,  the  capital,  and  Valencia  are  situated  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Caribbean  range  in  the  midst  of  the  most  productive  agricultural 
districts.  La  Guaira  (the  port  of  Caracas),  Maracaibo  (on  Lake 
Maracaibo),  and  Puerto  Cabello  are  the  chief  seaports.  Ciudad 
Bolivar  is  the  only  important  town  an  the  Orinoco.  The  Orinoco 
offers  a  magnificent  highway  for  traffic  into  the  interior.  The  future 
prosperity  of  Venezuela  probably  depends  on  the  development  of  the 
country  and  its  resources,  by  outside  capital  and  enterprise. 

142.  Guiana.  —  Guiana,  with  an  area  of  about  200,000  square 
miles,  is  divided  into  the  three  colonies  of  British,  French,  and 
Dutch  Guiana.  Though  not  bordering  directly  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea  (its  coast  being  to  the  eastward  of  the  chain  of  the  Windward 
and  Leeward  islands)  it  is  essentially  within  the  domain  of  West 
Indian  commerce. 

The  boundaries  of  the  three  Guiana  colonies,  both  among  them- 
selves and  with  neighboring  countries,  have  been  the  subject  of  con- 
troversy, which  seems  to  have  been  largely  based  on  the  location 
of  the  gold  deposits.  Of  this  nature,  was  the  recent  so-called 
"Venezuelan  Boundary  Dispute"  between  Venezuela  and  British 
Guiana. 

British  Guiana  has  an  area  of  104,000  square  miles  (almost  as 
large  as  Great  Britain  and  Ireland),  only  about  the  one-hundredth 
of  which  is  cleared  for  cultivation;  the  rest  is  virgin  forest. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  moist,  the  country  being  situated  but  a 
very  few  degrees  north  of  the  equator.  A  belt  of  low  alluvial  coast 
land  is  succeeded  by  a  white  sandy  strip  which  passes  into  the 


South  American  Countries  215 

rough  and  hilly  back  country,  forest-covered,  with  here  and  there 
open  savannas  in  the  interior.  To  a  marked  degree  the  productions 
are  dependent  upon  the  physical  features  of  the  regions.  Only  the 
low  coast  strip  (which  was  reclaimed  by  dikes  at  the  hands  of  the 
early  settlers)  is  under  cultivation,  and  the  chief  crop  is  sugar  cane. 
The  main  exports  are  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  balata  gum,  charcoal, 
and  woods.  The  country  has  rich  gold  deposits,  and  there  are 
also  diamonds,  both  of  which  form  items  of  export.  The  gold 
export  is  valued  at  upwards  of  $2,000,000.  The  imports  are  food- 
stuffs, machinery,  tobacco,  coal,  etc.  More  than  half  the  imports 
are  from  England,  and  1 2  per  cent  from  British  colonies ;  the 
United  States  contributes  about  25  per  cent  of  the  imports  into 
British  Guiana.  Somewhat  less  than  half  the  value  of  exports  goes 
to  the  United  States.  Georgetown  is  the  capital  of  the  colony  and 
the  most  important  town. 

Dutch  Guiana,  or  Surinam,  borders  British  Guiana  on  the  east,  and 
possesses  similar  physical  features.  Sugar,  cacao,  and  coffee  form 
the  chief  agricultural  products,  and  gold  is  mined  to  some  extent. 
The  capital  and  chief  town  of  the  colony  is  Paramaribo  at  the  junc- 
tion of  two  small  rivers  ten  miles  inland. 

French  Guiana,  or  Cayenne,  is  the  most  eastern  of  the  Guiana 
colonies.  Cacao  is  the  principal  crop  grown,  but  rum,  coffee,  phos- 
phates (from  the  near-by  islands),  anatto  (a  plant  material  used  for 
coloring  butter),  various  woods  and  gums  are  also  items  of  export. 
Gold  is  the  most  important  mineral,  and  its  mining  is  a  prominent 
industry  of  the  colony.  The  capital  and  chief  town  of  French 
Guiana  is  St.  Louis,  on  an  island  just  off  the  coast. 

The  United  States  takes  more  than  half  the  value  of  the  exports 
of  Dutch  Guiana,  but  only  contributes  about  1 7  per  cent  of  the  im- 
ports. French  Guiana  trades  largely  with  the  Mother  Country,  but 
England  sends  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  and  the  United  States  food- 
stuffs, petroleum,  and  lumber ;  the  imports  from  the  United  States 
are  about  6  per  cent  of  the  whole.  The  trade  between  the  United 


216  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

States  and  the  Guiana  colonies  is,  like  that  of  Venezuela,  relatively 
larger  than  is  the  case  with  other  South  American  countries  from  the 
fact  of  their  position,  fronting  north,  and  being  practically,  as  already 
pointed  out,  within  the  area  of  the  West  Indian  trade. 

II.     BRAZIL 

143.  Physical  Features.  —  The  vast  domain  of  the  United  States 
of  Brazil  covers  an  area  of  3,218,130  square  miles,  including  one-half 
the  area  of  the.  entire   continent  of  South   America,   and   greater 
than  that  of  Europe  as ,  a  whole,  or  of  the   entire  United  States. 
Of  this  enormous  territory,  but  a  small  fraction  is  improved  land ; 
the  greater  part  of  the  Republic  is  a  trackless  and  almost  unin- 
habited wilderness,  consisting  of  mountains  and  river  valleys  largely 
covered  by  dense  and  impenetrable  primeval  forests.     The  moun- 
tainous region  is  that  island-like  portion  of  the  Eastern  Highlands 
of  the  continent,  fronting  on  the  Atlantic  and  lying  between  the 
Amazon  Valley  on  the  north  and  the  valleys  of  the  Paraguay  and 
the   Parana  on   the  south   and  west.     The  river  valleys   of  Brazil 
belong   to   two   great   systems,   the  Amazon,  and  the   Parana   and 
Uruguay  drainage  of  the  La  Plata  Basin.     The  Amazon  Basin  (in- 
cluding its  tributary  drainage)  includes  an  area  of  1,900,000  square 
miles,  more  than  one-half  of  the  entire  territory  of  Brazil. 

144.  Population.  —  The  population  of  the  Brazilian  Republic  is 
upwards  of  14,000,000  (about  equal  to  the  population  of  New  York, 
Massachusetts,  and  Pennsylvania  combined),  representing  an  aver- 
age density  of  about  4.5  inhabitants  to   the  square  mile.     Of  this 
population,  38  per  cent  are  Europeans  of  relatively  pure  blood,  de- 
scendants of  the  original  Portuguese  settlers ;  another  38  per  cent 
are  of  mixed  Indian,  negro,  and  white  blood ;  4  per  cent  are  pure 
Indian  and  20  per  cent  negro.     Portuguese  is  the  language  spoken 
throughout  Brazil,  while  in  all  other  South  American  countries,  Span- 
ish is  the  prevailing  language.     The  sparseness  of  the  population  of 
Brazil,  when  compared  with  the  population  of  the  United  States,  is  a 


CURING  RUBBER,  AMAZON  VALLEY 


LOADING  CATTLE,  SOUTH  AMERICA 


South  American  Countries 


217 


forcible  illustration   of  differences  between   tropical  and  temperate 
regions. 

145.  Resources  and  Industries.  — The  resources  of  Brazil  are  nu- 
merous and  varied,  almost  every  variety  of  tropical  cultivation  being 
possible  and  the  forests  yielding  an  unlimited  supply  of  useful  prod- 
ucts. Brazil  is  the  greatest  coffee-producing  country  in  the  world, 
representing  about  60  per  cent  of  the  entire  world  supply.  Fully 
one-half  of  the  Brazilian  coffee  export  comes  to  the  United  States ; 
the  remaining  half  is  distributed  to  European  countries.  In  the 
twenty  years  following  1880  the  export  of  coffee  from  Brazil 
amounted  to  over  100,000,000  bags  (averaging  132  pounds).1  More 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  COFFEE 

recently  the  average  annual  export  of  coffee  is  from  10,000,000  to 
16,000,000  bags. 

Next  to  coffee,  rubber  is  the  most  important  export  of  Brazil; 
the  export  of  rubber  increases  constantly.  The  increase  of  the  latter 
exceeds  the  relative  increase  of  the  coffee  export  in  value,  though 
less  in  actual  amount.  Of  this  product,  the  United  States  purchases 
the  larger  portion;  the  export  of  rubber  in  1895  from  Brazil  to  this 
country  amounted  to  upwards  of  11,000,000  kilograms  (24,000,000 
pounds),  while  that  to  Europe  was  9,000,000  kilograms. 

Tobacco,  hides,  and  cacao  are  other  items  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  the  list  of  Brazilian  exports.  Sugar,  cotton,  and  mat6  or 

1  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance ;  August,  1901,  page  511. 


218 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


Paraguay  tea  are  also  extensively  cultivated.  The  different  districts 
are  characterized  by  the  production  of  certain  commodities.  Thus 
in  the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  the  cattle  industry  is  a  prominent 
feature,  incident  to  the  elevated  grass  lands  bordering  on  the  Uru- 
guay frontier.  In  this  district,  also,  the  preserving  of  fruit,  tanning, 
and  brewing  are  among  the  more  important  industries.  In  the  Rio 
de  Janeiro  district  and  the  neighboring  states  of  San  Paulo  and  Minas 
Geraes,  coffee  is  the  main  product,  there  being  upwards  of  15,000 

plantations  in  the  former  state 
and  2000  in  the  latter  with  an 
average  of  over  1  70,000  trees 
for  each  plantation.  In  1  90  1- 
1902  the  estimated  yield  of 
export  coffee  in  the  Rio  de 
Janeiro  district  was  upwards 
of  12,000,000  bags.  In  the 
Amazon  Valley,  rubber  pro- 
duction is  the  characteristic 
industry;  the  1900  export  of 
this  district  was  estimated  at 
THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  COFFEE  upwards  of  26,600  tons.  In 
(1900),  APPROXIMATED  IN  BAGS  OF  Pernambuco  the  manufacture 
132  POUNDS  EACH  of  ^  ^  &  inent 

industry  ;    the    total    output 


Total,  15,285,000  bags 


of  Brazilian  sugar  for  1900-1901  was  estimated  at  250,000  tons. 
Cotton  is  likewise  grown  in  this  state,  the  yield  in  1899-1900  being 
upwards  of  289,000  bales.  There  is  a  noticeable  increase  of  late  in 
Brazilian  cotton  manufacture,  155  mills  being  in  operation.  The  mill- 
ing industry  has  likewise  extended  to  wool,  silk,  and  flour,  the  supplies 
for  the  latter  being  mainly  drawn  from  Uruguay  and  Argentina. 

The  vast  mineral  and  forest  resources  of  Brazil  are  comparatively 
undeveloped.  Gold  and  diamonds  are  worked  in  the  states  of  Minas 
Geraes  and  Bahia,  and  a  variety  of  mineral  products  are  found, 


South  American  Countries  219 

notably  lead,  zinc,  silver,  copper,  mercury,  iron,  and  manganese. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  metal  deposits  occur  in  the  mountain  region 
of  the  Eastern  Highlands.  Some  coal  mines  are  being  operated  in 
the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  but  the  product  is  mostly  of  the 
nature  of  lignite.  Scarcity  of  fuel  operates  against  the  development 
of  the  vast  iron  deposits  of  the  country. 

146.  Commercial  Features. — In  1899  there  was  a  total  length 
of  8718  miles  of  railroad  in  operation,  and  in  addition  nearly  5000 
miles  under  construction.  The  government  is  acquiring  control  of 
several  lines,  and  likewise  controls  the  telegraph  system.  A  large 
coasting  trade  is  carried  on  by  Brazilian  vessels  between  the  various 
ports. 

The  Indian  population  is  chiefly  in  the  Amazon  Valley  and  the 
northern  provinces,  while  the  white  population  (a  number  of  them 
immigrants  from  Germany,  Italy,  and  other  European  countries)  is 
largely  centered  about  the  seaports  and  in  the  agricultural  districts 
of  the  southern  portion.  As  a  consequence  of  this,  the  most  pro- 
ductive region  of  Brazil  is  in  the  southern  half,  with  Rio  (Rio  de 
Janeiro)  as  its  seaport  and  commercial  center.  This  city,  with  a 
population  of  750,000,  is  the  federal  capital,  and  the  largest  city  in 
South  America.  It  is  the  greatest  coffee  market  in  the  world.  Rio 
is  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name  which  affords  a  splendid  harbor. 
Its  situation  south  of  the  projecting  portion  of  the  continent  places  it 
at  practically  the  same  distance  from  the  United  States  as  from  the 
ports  of  western  Europe.  On  the  other  hand,  the  city  of  Para 
(Belem),  commanding  the  trade  of  the  Amazon  Valley,  and  holding 
the  first  place  in  the  world's  rubber  markets,  is,  by  its  situation  north 
of  the  above  mentioned  projection,  brought  into  much  closer  connec- 
tion with  the  United  States.  As  a  result,  the  purchases  of  Para  from 
the  United  States  are  relatively  much  greater  than  are  those  of  the  ports 
farther  south.  The  more  productive  centers,  however,  being  in  the 
southern  part,  call  for  direct  steamship  communication  between  this 
part  of  Brazil  and  the  United  States.  Pernambuco,  or  Recife,  south 


220  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

of  Cape  St.  Roque,  is  another  port,  doing  a  large  trade  in  sugar, 
coffee,  and  cotton.  There  are  numerous  other  more  or  less  important 
commercial  towns  throughout  the  settled  parts  of  the  Republic. 

Brazil  imports  cotton  and  woolen  textiles,  iron  and  hardware, 
machinery,  coal,  petroleum,  provisions,  cattle  and  dried  beef,  bread- 
stuffs,  codfish,  pork,  lard,  olive  oil,  butter,  tea,  candles,  salt,  timber, 
wines,  etc.  Of  the  total  imports  at  Rio  for  1900,  which  amounted 
to  upwards  of  $45,000,000,  Great  Britain  furnished  about  35  per 
cent,  Germany  10  per  cent,  and  the  United  States  nearly  9  per  cent. 
The  yearly  imports  of  the  United  States  from  Brazil  represent  an 
excess  over  our  exports  to  that  country  of  upwards  of  $46,000,000. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

143.  What  are  the  explanations  of  the  failure  of  the  United  States  to  develop 
favorable  trade  relations  with  South  America  ?     (See  Emory,  noted  below. ) 

144.  Why  has  Europe  been  more  successful  than  the  United  States  in  securing 
and  holding  South  American  trade  ?     (See  Schoff,  below.) 

145.  With  a  sketch  map  of  South  America,  show  the  prevailing  winds,  dis- 
tribution of  rainfall,  and  the  characteristic  vegetation  of  the    different   regions 
of  the  continent. 

146.  Does  it  seem  better  in  the  long  run  to  educate  foreign  countries  into  the 
use  of  a  better  grade  of  goods  and  improved  methods  of  trade,  or  servilely  to  sup- 
ply the  things  they  demand  and  in  the  ways  they  demand  them  ?     What  nation 
generally  follows  the  first  method  ?     What  one  the  second  ? 

147.  Find  the  distance  from  Rio  Janeiro  to  London  and  from  Rio  Janeiro  to 
New  York.     What  are  the  advantages  of  location  ? 

148.  What  is  the  per  capita  consumption  of  coffee  in  the  United   States  ? 
What  in  Great  Britain  ? 

149.  Great  Britain  is  considered  a  free  trade  country  and  the  United  States 
a  high  tariff  country.     What  are  the  facts  for  the  import  duty  on  coffee  in  the 
two  countries  ?     How  do  you  account  for  the  facts,  and  how   do   the  policies 
affect  trade  of  the  two  nations  with  Brazil  ? 

150.  What  part  of  Brazil  is  best  suited  for  settlement  by  people  from  the 
United  States  and  Europe  ?     Why  ? 

151.  What  is  the  present  commercial  "sphere  of  influence"  of  the  United 
States  in  South  America  ? 

152.  Compare  the  commercial  advantages  of  a  navigable  river  flowing  north 
and  south  with  "one  flowing  east  and  west.     Illustrate  this,  using  the  Amazon  and 
the  Mississippi. 


South  American  Countries  221 


Books  to  be  Consulted 

** International  Geography,  Chapters  XLIII,  XLVI  and  XLVII. 
**American  Commerce.     Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  Treasury 
Department.     August;    1901. 

*  Coffee,  Information  and  Statistics  on.     Bureau  of  American  Republics.     Wash- 

ington, D.C.;    1902. 

Rodway,  In  the  Guiana  Forest.     London;    1885. 

*Keane,  Central  and  South  America.     Stanford's  Compendium.     New  Issue. 
**  The  United  States  of  Brazil.     A  Geographical  Sketch.     Bureau  of  American 

Republics.     Washington,  D.C. ;  1901. 

*  The  United  States  and  Latin  America,  Proceedings  of  the  Seventh  Annual  Meet- 

ing of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  The  Annals  of 
the  Academy;  July,  1903.  See  especially  the  papers  of  Frederic  Emory,  on 
The  Causes  of  our  Failure  to  develop  Latin- American  Trade,  and  Wilfred  H. 
Schoff,  on  Development  of  European  Trade  Relations  with  Latin  America. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  COUNTRIES  (continued} 
III.     COUNTRIES    OF    THE    LA    PLATA    BASIN 

147.  Argentina.  —  The  Argentine  Republic  is  the  second  in  size 
of  the  South  American  countries,  and  is  somewhat  more  than  half  as 
large  as  the  United  States.  Argentina  has  a  population  of  nearly 
4,000,000  (about  equal  to  that  of  Illinois).  The  country  is  almost 
wholly  within  the  south  temperate  zone,  only  the  northern  portion 
possessing  a  tropical  climate. 

Four  climatic  regions  are  recognized:  (i)  the  northern  low 
plains,  tropical  in  character;  (2)  the  central  plains  region,  warm 
temperate,  and  temperate ;  (3)  the  Patagonian  plains,  south  of  the 
Rio  Negro,  a  cold  and  inhospitable  desert  of  loose  stones  and  shingle  ; 
.and  (4)  the  Andes  region,  embracing  the  eastern  slopes  and  foothills  of 
the  Cordillera  up  to  the  Chilian  frontier  on  the  crest  line,  the  climate 
varying  according  to  the  latitude,  altitude,  and  time  of  year. 

Possessing  a  vast  expanse  of  grassy  plains  (the  pampas),  Argen- 
tina has  turned  its  attention  mainly  to  stock  raising  and  grain 
growing.  Sheep  and  wheat  are  the  most  important  products  of  the 
country.  In  1897  there  were  105,000,000  sheep  in  Argentina,  and 
they  produced  an  average  of  4.5  pounds  of  wool  each.  During  the 
last  forty  years  the  number  of  sheep  has  increased  eleven-fold, 
while  the  wool  clip  has  increased  fifteen  fold,  showing  a  steady 
improvement  in  the  wool-producing  qualities  of  the  stock.1  Cattle 
are  second  only  to  sheep  in  their  importance,  though  their  increase 
has  not  been  so  marked.  In  connection  with  this  production  of 
1  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance;  August,  1901,  p.  510. 

222 


South  American  Countries 


223 


live  stock,  is  the  freezing  of  meat ;  large  packing-houses  for  this  pur- 
pose have  been  established  by  a  company  of  British  capitalists.  The 
shipping  of  frozen  meat  is  an  important  branch  of  Argentine  trade. 

Wheat  is  grown  extensively;  the  area  under  wheat  in  1899  was 
estimated  at  5,500,000  acres,  with  a  yield  of  upwards  of  82,500,000 
bushels.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the  wheat  is  exported.  Other 
productions  are  flax,  corn,  and  sugar  (in  the  northern  warmer 
regions) .  Fruits  of  various  sorts  are  also  largely  cultivated,  grape 
culture  and  wine  making  being  important  agricultural  features. 

Argentina  is  rich  in  economic  mineral  deposits  which  await 
exploitation.  Copper,  gold, 
and  silver  ores  are  abundant 
in  the  Andes  provinces  of  the 
Republic ;  alluvial  deposits  of 
gold  occur  along  the  coast  as 
far  south  as  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
Other  metals  and  non-metallic 
substances  are  more  or  less 
abundant,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  coal  (chiefly  lig- 
nite) ,  petroleum,  salt,  nitrates, 
iron,  sulphur,  borax,  etc. 

The  country  is  covered  in 
parts  with  extensive  forests 
which  yield  a  variety  of  valu- 
able products,  —  timber  of 
various  kinds  (including  the  heavy  quebracho  wood),  mate*  or  Para- 
guay tea,  etc. 

There  is  little  done  in  the  line  of  manufacturing,  though  there  is 
some  flour  milling,  wine  making,  distilling,  and  brewing.  Nearly  all 
the  needful  manufactures  are  imported.  The  chief  exports  are  live 
animals  and  animal  products  (including  wool,  frozen  meat,  cheese, 
butter,  hides,  tallow,  etc.),  wheat,  corn,  linseed,  mineral  products, 


GREAT  BRITAIN 

63 

-31* 

GERMANY 

37 

-  18* 

FRANCE 

30 

-14* 

BELGIUM 

26 

-13* 

UNITED  STATES 

20 

-  10* 

ITALY 

19 

-     9* 

BRAZIL 

1O 

-     5* 

COMBINED  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  AR- 
GENTINA (1900),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MIL- 
LIONS OF  DOLLARS 

Total,  $ 205, 000,000 


224  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

and  native  woods.  'Of  the  imports  Great  Britain  supplies  about  29 
per  cent  and  the  United  States  only  about  10  per  cent;  Germany, 
France,  Italy,  Brazil,  and  Belgium  make  up  most  of  the  remainder. 
The  exports  from  Argentina  were  over  $200,000  in  excess  of  the 
imports  in  1901.  Over  2,500,000  sheep  are  now  slaughtered  in  a 
year  and  the  carcasses  shipped  frozen,  representing  a  value  of  about 
$2,000,000  in  gold.1  The  bulk  of  exports  go  to  European  countries. 

Buenos  Ayres,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  La  Plata  estuary,  is  the 
capital  and  largest  city  of  the  Republic.  It  commands  a  fine  harbor, 
which  has  been  greatly  improved  by  engineering  skill.  It  is  con- 
nected by  rail  with  various  towns  of  the  interior.  The  railway  system 
of  Argentina  is  being  rapidly  extended,  and  the  union  of  this  with  the 
Chilian  system,  now  about  being  effected,  will  make  a  transcontinental 
line  across  the  pampas  and  the  Andes  from  Buenos  Ayres  on  the 
Atlantic,  to  Valparaiso  on  the  Pacific  coast.  About  10,000  miles 
of  railroad  are  in  operation  throughout  the  Republic.  No  other 
South  American  country  is  more  progressive  —  a  fact  due  to  climatic 
influences  and  the  preponderance  of  Europeans  in  the  population. 
Many  Italian  immigrants  have  come  into  the  country  in  recent  years. 
Argentina  is  a  magnificent  country  with  a  great  future ;  but  what  it 
needs  most  is  capital  and  enterprise  rather  than  further  colonization 
by  unskilled  laborers,  cheap  labor  being  already  at  hand.  As  in  most 
other  South  American  countries,  the  language  is  Spanish  and  the  state 
and  church  Roman  Catholic. 

148.  Uruguay.  —  The  Republic  of  Uruguay,  lying  between  Brazil 
on  the  north  and  Argentina  on  the  south  and  west  (from  which 
latter  it  is  separated  by  the  La  Plata  estuary  and  the  Uruguay  River), 
is  similar  in  physical  features  to  its  southern  neighbor.  It  lies 
entirely  within  the  south  temperate  zone,  covering  an  area  about 
equal  to  that  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  together.  It  has  a  scant  popula- 
tion of  964,600 ;  seventy  per  cent  of  the  population  are  native-born 
white  persons — the  rest  are  immigrants  from  southern  Europe.  The 

1  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance;  August,  1901,  p.  510. 


South  American  Countries  225 

climate  is  mild  and  healthful,  and  the  surface  of  the  country  a 
well-watered,  undulating  plain  of  grass  land,  affording  a  wonderfully 
luxuriant  pasture.  There  is  but  little  timber  throughout  the  country. 
Like  Argentina,  the  chief  industries  are  stock  raising  and  grain 
growing.  Besides  these,  grape  and  olive  culture  and  the  growing 
of  tobacco  are  important  occupations.  The  value  of  live  stock 
(including  sheep,  cattle,  horses,  and  mules)  is  estimated  at  upwards 
of  $73,000,000.  The  wool  clip  in  1901  amounted  to  over  96,000,000 
pounds.  In  1900  the  yield  of  the  wheat  crop  was  33,000,000  bushels. 
Over  740,000  head  of  cattle  were  slaughtered  in  the  same  year.  The 
chief  exports  are  wool,  hides,  dried  beef,  beef  extracts,  and  tallow. 
The  mineral  resources  are  developed  to  some  extent.  The  imports 
are  proportionally  larger  per  individual  than  is  the  case  with  Argen- 
tina. The  Republic  has  a  considerable  trade  with  both  Brazil 
and  Argentina ;  but  Great  Britain  furnishes  the  bulk  of  the  manu- 
factures imported,  the  United  States  standing  sixth  in  the  list  from 
which  imports  are  received  (1901). 

Montevideo  is  the  capital  and  chief  city,  situated  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  La  Plata ;  it  is  the  commercial  rival  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Rail- 
roads connect  it  with  the  principal  towns  in  the  interior. 

149.  Paraguay.  —  The  Republic  of  Paraguay  is  entirely  inland, 
having  no  communication  with  the  sea  except  through  the  La 
Plata  system.  It  covers  a  territory  about  as  large  as  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  taken  together,  and  has  a  population  of  only 
600,000,  not  counting  the  Indian  peoples.  The  northern  portion 
of  the  Republic  is  tropical,  and  the  northwest  section  embraces  a 
part  of  the  Gran  Chaco,  a  wild,  undeveloped  region.  The  forests 
of  Paraguay  yield  a  variety  of  products,  —  timber,  gums,  dyewoods, 
etc.  The  chief  industries  are  the  cultivation  of  the  yerba  mate"  (a 
species  of  holly  from  which  Paraguay  tea  is  made)  and  oranges. 
The  cultivation  of  the  rubber  tree  is  being  attempted.  Sugar  cane, 
tobacco,  coffee,  indigo,  cotton,  and  other  tropical  products  grow 
well  wherever  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  cultivate  them. 
Q 


226  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Cattle  and  sheep  raising  is  an  industry  of  some  importance  in  the 
open  plains  of  the  Chaco  region.  The  chief  exports  are  Paraguay 
tea,  oranges,  tobacco,  timber,  and  hides.  Many  valuable  mineral 
deposits  occur  throughout  the  region,  but  as  yet  they  are  compara- 
tively undeveloped.  The  imports  are  chiefly  manufactured  goods 
(cotton  and  machinery)  and  provisions.  Being  entirely  inland,  the 
trade  of  Paraguay  with  outside  countries  is  small;  that  with  the 
United  States  in  recent  years  has  been  less  than  $1000  a  year. 
Asuncion,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Paraguay 
River.  It  commands  the  steamboat  traffic  of  the  La  Plata,  and  is 
regularly  visited  by  steamboats  of  several  lines.  The  city  is  connected 
by  rail  with  the  most  important  interior  towns.  Telegraph  lines 
connect  it  with  other  more  important  centers,  and  with  the  world 
at  large. 

IV.     THE    ANDES    REPUBLICS 

150.  Colombia.  —  The  United  States  of  Colombia  lies  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Northern  Cordillera,  and  includes  also  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  thus  has  a  seacoast  fronting  on  both 
oceans,  and  as  a  consequence,  and  because  of  its  relation  to  the 
Caribbean  trade,  it  does  a  relatively  larger  business  with  the 
United  States  than  is  the  case  with  most  South  American 
countries.  The  area  of  the  Republic  is  about  equal  to  that  of  all 
the  southern  States  east  of  the  Mississippi.  It  has  a  population 
of  some  4,000,000.  The  country  presents  a  surface  of  lofty 
mountain  ranges  in  the  western  part,  the  eastern  part  being  grass- 
covered  plains  or  llanos.  Four  zones  characterize  the  mountain 
slopes,  the  tierra  caliente,  templada,  and  fria,  and  above  these, 
the  paramos  from  10,000  to  13,000  feet  altitude  —  a  bleak  and 
uninhabited  region.  In  the  first  zone  the  purely  tropical  products, 
as  cacao,  bananas,  and  sugar  cane,  are  grown ;  in  the  templada, 
coffee  and  maize  are  important  crops ;  in  the  cold  temperate  (fria), 
the  cereals,  potatoes,  and  northern  fruits  are  raised.  Large  herds 
of  cattle  are  pastured  on  the  llanos.  In  certain  districts  tobacco 


South  American  Countries  227 

is  an  important  crop.  A  large  area  of  the  Republic  is  forested, 
especially  the  low,  hot  plains,  the  forests  abounding  in  a  great 
variety  of  wild  products,  including  vegetable  ivory,  divi-divi  wood, 
rubber,  tolu,  and  other  gums  and  dyestuffs.  Palms  of  many  sorts, 
including  the  cocoanut,  flourish  in  the  hot,  moist  districts,  while 
the  cinchona  tree,  the  bark  of  which  yields  quinine,  grows  on 
the  mountain  slopes.  Valuable  mineral  deposits  abound,  —  gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  coal,  salt,  and  emeralds,  —  but  as  yet  little  has 
been  done  in  the  way  of  developing  these  resources.  The  busi- 
ness of  the  country  is  in  a  very  backward  state,  owing  to  the  fre- 
quent civil  wars,  and  the  primitive  means  of  internal  communication. 
In  the  main,  the  roads  are  only  mule  tracks.  The  chief  highway 
of  commerce  is  the  Magdalena  River,  which  flows  northward  from 
the  mountainous  interior  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Steamers  ascend 
the  river  for  about  900  miles,  and  the  tributary  streams  are  like- 
wise navigable  for  some  distance  along  their  courses.  The  work 
of  building  canals  and  clearing  the  river  channels  is  now  under  way. 

The  industries  are  almost  altogether  agricultural,  although  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  fertile  soil  is  .under  .cultivation.  Mining  is 
carried  on  to  a  slight  extent  in  certain  districts. 

Bogota,  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  is  situated  on  a  lofty  por- 
tion of  the  Cordillera.  Two  seaports  are  on  the  Caribbean  coast,  — 
Cartagena  and  Barranquilla  on  the  Magdalena  River  with  Puerto 
Colombia  as  its  entry  port.  Panama  is  on  the  Pacific  stde  of  the 
Isthmus  and  Colon  on  the  Caribbean  side ;  these  two  places  are 
connected  by  a  railroad  of  importance  in  the  trade  between  the 
two  oceans.  The  Isthmus  is  the  site  of  a  great  ship  canal  as  yet 
not  completed.  The  population  of  Colombia  is  chiefly  centered 
about  the  towns  and  seaports. 

Of  the  import  trade  of  Colombia,  the  United  States  supplies  about 
30  per  cent,  principally  textile  manufactures,  petroleum,  breadstuff's, 
and  beverages.  Coffee  forms  the  export  of  largest  value.  Forest 
products,  minerals,  cattle,  hides,  tobacco,  and  rubber  are  also  ex- 


22  8  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

ported.  In  the  past  ten  years  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
have  held  their  own  in  Colombian  trade ;  Germany  has  shown  an 
increase,  while  France  has  fallen  off. 

151.  Ecuador.  —  The  Republic  of  Ecuador  consists  of  a  lofty 
mountain-rimmed  plateau  which  is  divided  by  mountain  knots  or 
spurs  into  a  series  of  "  basins."  On  the  east  the  Cordilleran  slopes 
embrace  the  Amazon  watershed,  while  on  the  west  the  slopes  de- 
scend more  steeply  to  the  Pacific  coast  strip.  Though  located  on 
the  equator  the  great  altitudes  produce  a  moderate  climate  through- 
out a  considerable  area  of  the  country.  The  low  coast  lands  are  hot 
and  unhealthy ;  the  eastern  slopes  are  subject  to  a  heavy  rainfall,  a 
wet  and  dry  season  being  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  lower 
portions.  Ecuador  is  about  equal  in  area  to  the  states  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois  taken  together;  it  has  a  population  of  over 
a  million.  The  region  is  volcanic,  earthquakes  being  frequent ; 
numerous  giant  volcanoes  rise  from  the  Cordilleran  ranges.  The 
eastern  slopes  are  heavily  forested  as  the  result  of  the  abundant 
rainfall.  A  great  variety  of  tropical  products  are  found  on  these 
forest  slopes,  both  on  the  eastern  and  western  side.  Among  the 
many  kinds  of  forest  trees  are  the  "  red  bark  "  cinchona  trees  (rich 
in  quinine),  the  Castilloa  rubber,  and  much  valuable  timber, 
besides  gum  and  dye-yielding  trees  and  plants.  In  the  drier 
Andean  basins  of  the  plateau,  the  vegetation  is  scanty,  being  chiefly 
cactus  forms.  Agriculture  of  various  kinds  is  the  chief  industry, 
but  it  is  in  a  backward  state.  Cacao  is  the  staple  product,  the 
number  of  trees  being  upwards  of  40,000,000.  Coffee,  sugar,  and 
cotton  are  also  grown.  Ivory  nuts,  Peruvian  bark,  sarsaparilla, 
orchilla,  and  rubber  are  among  the  wild  forest  products  gathered 
and  exported.  Attention  is  now  being  directed  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  rubber  trees,  as  the  original  supply  is  being  rapidly  ex- 
hausted. Wheat,  barley,  and  maize  are  grown  in  the  Andean 
basins  for  local  consumption  only ;  in  some  districts  a  consider- 
able number  of  cattle  are  raised.  Ecuador  is  rich  in  gold  deposits, 


South  American  Countries  229 

some  of  which  are  worked,  and  many  other  ores  and  minerals  are 
abundant  throughout  the  region,  though  little  has  been  done  in  the 
way  of  their  development.  Insufficient  population  and  want  of  good 
roads  are  the  chief  causes  of  the  Republic's  backward  state. 

Quito,  the  capital,  at  an  elevation  of  over  9000  feet,  is  about  115 
miles  from  Guayaquil,  the  seaport  of  the  country,  and  is  connected 
with  it  only  by  an  indifferent  highway.  Most  of  the  transportation 
is  done  on  pack  animals.  A  region  of  such  natural  wealth  needs  but  the 
influence  of  outside  enterprise  and  capital  to  develop  its  resources  and 
open  up  the  means  of  communication.  The  population  of  Ecuador 
is  largely  Indian.  One  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  country  is  the 
manufacture  of  "  Panama  hats,"  so  called  from  the  fact  that  they 
entered  into  commerce  through  the  hands  of  Panama  merchants. 
They  are  made  by  hand,  the  grass  being  plaited  under  water.  Cacao 
is  the  chief  export,  and  cinchona  bark,  Panama  hats,  sarsaparilla, 
rubber,  coffee,  sugar,  'and  hides  are  items  of  some  importance. 
Fronting  on  the  Pacific,  the  trade  with  manufacturing  sections  of 
the  United  States  is  small,  and  the  purchases  are  mainly  from 
European  countries.  The  share  of  the  United  States  in  the  import 
trade  has  never  reached  a  million  dollars  a  year. 

152.  Peru.  — The  Republic  of  Peru  lies  south  of  Ecuador  in  the 
main  Cordillera.  It  covers  an  area  about  the  same  as  the  three 
Pacific  states,  —  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California,  —  and  contains 
a  population  of  4,609,000  souls.  More  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
population  are  native  Indian  peoples;  20  per  cent  are  of  mixed 
blood,  while  the  remainder  is  made  up  of  white  persons  of  Spanish 
descent,  and  immigrants  from  Europe,  China,  and  the  United  States. 
Spanish  is  the  language  spoken,  and  the  state  and  church,  as  in  other 
South  American  countries,  are  Roman  Catholic. 

The  Peruvian  Andes  consist  of  three  parallel  ranges  : — The  Mari- 
time, the  Central,  and  the  Eastern  Cordilleras.  The  first  two  are  vol- 
canic in  nature  and  inclose  between  them  a  lofty  and  cold  tract  of 
country  known  as  the  Puna  lands.  The  Eastern  Cordillera  or  the 


230  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Andes  proper  is  separated  from  the  Central  Cordillera  by  a  wide 
plateau  called  the  Sierra,  the  surface  of  which  is  diversified  by  lofty 
mountain  spurs  and  broad  plains  and  valleys.  The  land  rises  in 
height  toward  the  southward,  and  on  the  Bolivian  frontier  is  the 
basin  of  Lake  Titicaca,  covering  an  area  of  16,000  square  miles,  at 
an  elevation  of  over  12,500  feet  above  the  sea.  The  eastern  slopes 
of  the  Cordilleras  embrace  the  upper  Amazon  Basin  and  are  heavily 
forested  and  deeply  cut  by  numerous  ravines  in  which  flow  the  feeders 
of  the  upper  Amazon.  The  narrow  coast  strip  is  some  20  miles 
in  width.  The  western  slopes  are  dry  in  contrast  with  the  eastern 
or  Andean  slopes.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  east,  and  are 
deprived  of  moisture  in  crossing  the  lofty  ranges.  The  Puna  lands 
extend  from  12,500  to  over  14,000  feet  altitude,  and  are  practically 
uninhabited. 

The  staple  products  of  Peru  are  cotton,  sugar,  and  coffee.  In 
1901  the  value  of  the  cotton  export  reached  $1,630,000,  and  that 
of  coffee  over  $327,000.  Cinchona  bark,  coca  leaves  (cocaine) 
and  other  medicinal  plants,  dyestuffs,  and  rubber  also  figure 
prominently  in  Peruvian  commerce ;  cacao,  rice,  and  tobacco, 
are  also  of  more  or  less  importance.  Wool  forms  a  leading  item  of 
export,  and  is  obtained  both  from  sheep  and  from  the  native  alpaca 
and  llama.  Cattle  are  raised  and  hides  exported  to  some  extent. 
From  the  offshore  rocky  islands,  guano  is  collected  and  exported  in 
considerable  quantities.  Peru  is  rich  in  valuable  minerals  ;  gold,  sil- 
ver, lead,  zinc,  copper,  and  mercury  among  metals,  and  coal,  petro- 
leum, salt,  borax,  and  sulphur  among  non-metallic  substances.  Gold 
mining  has  declined.  The  shipment  of  ores,  especially  of  silver  and 
copper,  forms  a  considerable  item  in  Peruvian  trade. 

Like  other  South  American  countries,  Peru  needs  capital.  The 
means  for  internal  communication  are  still  imperfect,  though  upwards 
of  a  thousand  miles  of  railroad  are  in  operation,  involving  some 
remarkable  feats  of  engineering  in  overcoming  mountain  obstacles. 
Much  of  the  trade  on  the  eastern  side,  especially  the  rubber  output, 


South  American  Countries  231 

finds  its  way  by  boat  down  the  Amazon.  Manufacturing  is  carried  on 
to  some  extent,  chiefly  in  the  making  of  straw  hats,  coarse  woolen 
fabrics,  beverages,  shoes,  soap,  candles,  and  cigars. 

Lima  is  the  capital  and  chief  city,  and  is  connected  by  rail  with 
the  near-by  seaport  of  Callao.  The  trade  of  Peru  is  mainly  with  Great 
Britain.  In  1899  there  were  entered  and  cleared  at  the  port  of 
Callao  306  British  vessels,  90  German,  and  17  from  the  United 
States.  Textile  manufactures,  iron,  and  machinery  form  the  bulk  of 
imports,  Great  Britain  supplying  over  one-third,  Germany  one-sixth, 
and  the  United  States  about  9  per  cent,  the  latter  country  showing  a 
slight  increase  in  recent  years.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on 
between  Peru  and  the  neighboring  countries. 

153.  Bolivia.  —  The  Republic  of  Bolivia  borders  Peru  on  the 
south  and  east,  and  is  entirely  an  inland  country,  having  no  seacoast 
and  no  outlet  except  through  other  countries.  It  is  larger  than  the 
southern  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  with  a  population  of  about 
four  per  square  mile  ;  one-half  of  the  population  is  Indian,  one-quarter 
mixed  blood,  and  the  other  quarter  whites  of  Spanish  descent.  The 
country,  though  rich  in  resources,  is  in  a  very  backward  state.  Agri- 
cultural pursuits  form  the  chief  occupation,  but  mining  is  carried  on 
in  certain  parts,  notably  in  the  famous  Potosi  district ;  silver,  tin,  and 
copper  are  the  most  important  ores  produced.  Coffee  and  rubber 
form  the  chief  vegetable  products.  Sugar  is  produced  mainly  for  the 
purpose  of  distillation.  The  northern  grains  and  vegetables  are 
grown  on  the  lofty  table-lands,  and  cattle,  sheep,  and  llamas  are  also 
raised  in  large  numbers  on  the  high  pasture  lands.  The  wool  of  the 
two  latter  animals  is  woven  into  coarse  native  cloth.  Most  of  the 
transportation  is  done  on  the  backs  of  llamas  and  mules.  The  east- 
ern part  of  Bolivia  embraces  the  upper  watersheds  of  the  Amazon 
and  La  Plata  basins.  The  fertile  slopes  and  valleys  of  these  districts 
are  heavily  forested,  producing  a  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation.  This 
region  is  the  home  of  several  varieties  of  cinchona  trees,  which  pro- 
duce the  famous  Bolivian  bark,  rich  in  quinine.  Coffee  and  cacao  of 


232 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


fine  quality  are  cultivated  here,  and  the  production  of  India  rubber 
is  a  growing  industry. 

The  river  valleys  afford  highways  of  trade  toward  the  east.  Rail- 
road construction  is  being  carried  forward  to  connect  with  the  Argen- 
tine system  and  also  with  that  of  Peru.  About  500  miles  of  road  are 
now  in  operation,  by  which  the  chief  city,  La  Paz,  is  connected  with 
the  Chilian  port  of  Antofagasta.  Sucre  is  the  capital  of  the  Republic, 
but  La  Paz  is  the  largest  city  and  most  important  commercial  center. 
A  steamer  service  is  maintained  on  Lake  Titicaca,  which  is  on  the 
Peruvian  frontier. 

Bolivian  trade  is  largely  with  neighboring  countries,  though  some 
trade  with  the  ^outside  world  is  carried  on.  Coffee,  cacao,  rubber, 

silver,  tin,  and  copper  *  form 
the  chief  exports.  The  im- 
ports consist  of  clothing,  tex- 
tiles, hardware,  provisions,  and 
liquors. 

154.  Chile.  — The  Republic 
of  Chile  occupies  a  narrow  strip 
along  the  western  side  of  the 
continent  from  Peru  to  Cape 
Horn.  It  embraces  the  Strait 
of  Magellan  and  the  western 
portion  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
Chile  borders  the  Argentine 
frontier  along  the  high  crest 
line  of  the  Cordillera.  The 
Republic  lies  almost  wholly 
within  the  south  temperate  zone.  It  is  about  equal  to  California, 
Oregon,  and  Washington  in  size,  and  supports  about  3,000,000  peo- 
ple, an  average  density  of  about  ten  to  the  square  mile.  More  than 
one-third  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits.  Wheat 
is  the  most  important  crop  raised ;  the  annual  yield  of  wheat  is  about 


GREAT  BRITAIN         IBS           — 

61* 

GERMANY                            5'5                   - 

20% 

UNITED  STATES               18                   ^= 

6.5* 

FRANCE                                  17                   =               6% 

PERU                                                           8                          — 

3% 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES              9                         = 

3.  5% 

COMMERCE  OF  CHILE  FOR  1900,  APPROXI- 
MATED IN  MILLIONS  OF  PESOS 
Total,  273,000,000  pesos 


MOUNTAIN  PACK  TRAIN 


VALPARAISO  HARBOR 


South  American  Countries  233 

28,000,000  bushels.  Other  cereal  crops  amount  to  over  8,500,000 
bushels.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  also  largely  grown.  Sheep,  goat, 
and  cattle  raising  form  a  very  important  branch  of  Chilian  agricul- 
ture. The  foremost  industry  of  the  country,  however,  is  the  extrac- 
tion of  nitrate  of  soda  (saltpeter) ,  which  occurs  in  great  abundance  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  rainless  region.  This  material  is  largely 
used  as  a  fertilizer,  and  more  than  400,000,000  tons  have  been  ex- 
tracted and  shipped,  for  the  most  part  to  European  countries.  More 
than  two-thirds  of  the  exports  of  Chile  are  nitrate  of  soda.  Chile  is 
rich  in  mineral  deposits.  Copper  is  the  most  important  metallic  ore 
produced,  but  gold,  silver,  zinc,  tin,  nickel,  cobalt,  and  manganese  ore 
are  also  worked.  Coal  deposits  occur,  the  output  in  1900  amounting 
to  upwards  of  325,000  tons.  The  gathering  and  shipment  of  guano, 
from  the  neighboring  rocky  islands,  is  another  important  feature  of 
Chilian  industry. 

The  country  is  mountainous  throughout ;  it  is  sparsely  wooded  in 
the  dry  northern  sections.  The  agricultural  lands  are  the  coast  strip 
and  the  mountain  valleys  and  slopes  of  the  middle  and  southern  por- 
tions. The  climate  of  the  middle  region  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world,  and  the  good  drainage  secured  by  the  slopes  makes  the  coun- 
try exceedingly  healthful.  The  people  are  largely  a  mixture  of 
whites  with  the  aboriginal  inhabitants.  They  are  fairly  progressive, 
the  temperate  climate  undoubtedly  exerting  an  important  influence 
in  this  direction. 

Chile  possesses  nearly  a  thousand  miles  of  navigable  rivers  and 
upwards  of  14,000  miles  of  public  highways.  About  3000  miles  of 
railroad  are  in  operation.  This  was  the  earliest  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can countries  to  build  railroads. 

Santiago,  the  capital,  is  beautifully  located  at  the  western  base  of 
the  Andes.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  chief  city  and  commer- 
cial seaport,  Valparaiso.  The  latter  city  commands  a  fine  harbor 
and  roadstead,  a  comparatively  uncommon  feature  on  this  portion  of 
the  coast.  Valparaiso  is  in  fact  the  most  important  commercial  center 


234 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


on  the  western  side  of  South  America,  being  the  terminal  port  for 
several  steamship  lines  from  Europe.  Other  ports  are  located  at 
favorable  points ;  Punta  Arenas  commands  the  Magellan  passage. 

Chile  is  more  forward  in  manufactures  than  is  the  case  with  other 
South  American  countries.  Among  the  more  important  of  the  manu- 
factures are  the  products  of  machine  works,  saw  mills,  carriage  factories, 

sugar  refineries,  breweries, 
etc.  The  principal  exports 
are  nitrate,  metallic  ores, 
minerals,  guano,  wool,  hides, 
leather,  wheat,  and  barley. 
The  chief  imports  are  coal, 
sugar,  dress  goods,  hardware, 
illuminating  oil,  etc.  Chile 
has  considerable  trade  with 
neighboring  countries,  but 
Great  Britain  has  the  bulk  of 
the  foreign  trade.  During  1898, 


ARGENTINA                        264 

-              32* 

BRAZIL                                 246 

—         29.7* 

CHILE                                    107 

13* 

URUGUAY                                52                  —            6^3* 

PERU                                         32 

4% 

OTHER  COUNTRIES                   121 

-            15* 

COMMERCE  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  BY  COUN-  for  example,  239  British  ves- 
TRIES  (1900),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MILLIONS  sels,  99  German,  68  Chilian, 
OF  DOLLARS 


Total,  $821,000,000 


and  7  vessels  from  the  United 
States  entered  and  cleared  at 

the  port  of  Valparaiso.     The  United  States  has  less  than  7  per  cent 

of  the  import  trade  of  Chile. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

153.  What   was   the    "line    of  demarcation"   (1493)?    (American   Colonial 
History.)     What  was  the  influence  of  this  on  colonizing  in  South  America  ? 

154.  What  language  is  spoken  in  Brazil  ?    What  in  the  rest  of  South  America? 

155.  In  what  month  is  Argentina  "waiting  for  the  harvest"  ? 

156.  Compare  the  soil  of  Argentina  with  that  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  ;  com- 
pare the  climate  of  the  two  regions.     What  are  the  chief  products  of  each  ? 

157.  At  a  recent  Trade  Congress,  the  representatives  of  Argentina  seemed  less 
solicitous  for  the  trade  of  the  United  States  than  did  the  representatives  of  other 


South  American  Countries  235 

Latin  American  countries.  How  do  you  account  for  this  ?  Why  should  there 
be  less  advantage  in  trade  between  the  United  States  and  Argentina  than  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  other  regions  of  South  America  ? 

158.  How  do  you  explain  the  comparative  coolness  of  South  America,  con- 
sidering its  position  in  the  torrid  zone  ? 

159.  A  project  of  the  Pan-American  Congress,  proposed  in  1889  (Washington) 
and  re-affirmed  in  1901  (Mexico),  is  to  connect  the  three  Americas  by  rail.     The 
total  distance  from  New  York  to  Buenos  Ayres  is  10,229  rniles,  of  which  6500 
miles  of  railroad  are  already  in  operation  or  in  course  of  construction.     What 
will  be  the  commercial  effect  of  the  completion  of  this  connection  ? 

1 60.  What  will  be  the  effects  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  upon  trade  relations  of 
the  United  States  and  western  South  America  ?    (See  Smith  noted  below.) 

161.  What  is  the  special  packing  of  goods  that  are  to  be  unloaded  by  "  lighter- 
age "  ?     What  when  they  are  to  be  transshipped  by  "  pack  train"  ? 

162.  Make  an  investigation  into  the  Resources  of  Chile. 

163.  Write  a  short  essay  on  The   Trade  Outlook  of  the   United  States  in 
South  America. 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**  The  International  Geography,  Chapters  XLIV  and  XLV. 

** American  Commerce.     Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  Treasury 

Department;   August,  1901. 

Hudson,  7'he  Naturalist  in  La  Plata.     London;    1892. 
*Markham,  Peru.     London,  1880. 
*Smith,  Western  South  America  and  its  Relation  to  American  Trade.     Annals 

of  American  Academy;   November,  1901. 
** Statesman's  Yearbook. 


PART   IV 

TRADE   OF  THE  EASTERN  HEMISPHERE 

CHAPTER    XVII 

THE  CONTINENT  OF   EURASIA  :    EUROPE  AND  ASIA 

155.  Physical  Features. — The  continent  of  Europe  appears  as  a 
peninsular  extension  of  the  greater  Asiatic  land  mass,  and  as  such  the 
two  grand  divisions  are  frequently  referred  to  under  the  single  com- 
prehensive term  "Eurasia."  The  geographical  boundary  between 
the  two  was  recognized  by  the  early  historic  peoples  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean region  as  the  straits  which  connect  the  Black  Sea  with  the 
Mediterranean.  These  straits  —  the  Dardanelles,  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora, and  the  narrow  Bosporus  —  have  always  denned  an  Occidental 
civilization  from  an  Oriental  one,  and  have  made  Europe  and  Asia 
separate  political  units.  North  of  the  Black  Sea,  the  sparsely  inhab- 
ited steppes  of  the  Caspian  region  and  the  low  ranges  of  the  Ural 
Mountain  system  formerly  existed  as  a  barrier  which  has  been  over- 
come in  recent  times  by  the  eastward  expansion  of  the  Russian 
Empire  and  the  two  lines  of  railroad,  —  the  Siberian  and  the 
Transcaspian.  ""  « 

The  most  conspicuous  feature  in  the  physical  geography  of  Europe, 
and  the  one  that  has  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  economic  devel- 
opment of  western  European  peoples,  is  the  deeply  indented  shore- 
line, whereby  almost  every  portion  of  the  continent  is  brought 
within  comparatively  easy  reach  of  some  inland  sea  —  the  highway 
of  communication.  The  greater  land  mass  of  Asia,  on  the  other 

237 


The  Continent  of  Eurasia 


239 


hand,  is  strikingly  devoid  of  these  inland-reaching  bodies  of  water. 
The  central  bulk  of  Asia  is  fringed  with  peninsulas  and  flanked  with 
chains  of  offshore  volcanic  islands ;  but  it  is  nowhere  deeply  pene- 
trated by  the  ocean  as  is  the  case  with  Europe. 

The  relief  features  of  Eurasia  as  a  whole  are  (i)  a  broad  northern 
lowland  which  slopes  gently  toward  the  basins  of  the  North  Atlantic 
and  Arctic  oceans  from  (2)  a  southern  highland  mass.  This 


SCALE  OF  RAI'NFALL 

IN  INCHES 

L  _,.   I  UNDER    10    INS. 

H  10-20      INS. 
Zj  20-40      INS. 


RAINFALL 

OF 
EtJ  ROPE 


northern  lowland  forms  the  so-called  Central  Plain  of  Europe,  which 
is  continuous  with  the  Siberian  Plain  of  Asia.  Its  surface  is  much 
broken  by  groups  of  low  mountain  ranges.  The  drainage  features 
of  the  continent  conform  in  the  main  to  the  broad  features  of  relief. 
The  southern  highland  mass  in  Europe  is  broken  by  several  de- 
pressions which  have  played  a  very  prominent  part  in  the  history  and 
commercial  development  of  European  peoples.  These  are  :  (i)  the 


240 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


basin  of  the  Danube  River  between  the  Alps  and  the  Carpathians, 
reaching  eastward  to  the  Black  Sea  ;  (2)  the  Rhone  and  Saone 
Valley,  affording  a  highway  from  the  Mediterranean  into  the  heart 
of  Europe ;  (3)  the  Middle  Rhine  Valley,  opening  into  the  Rhone- 
Saone  Valley  across  a  low  divide  —  the  so-called  Burgundy  Gate; 
(4)  the  valley  of  the  Po  in  northern  Italy;  and  (5)  the  low  divide 
separating  the  Garonne  and  Aude  basins,  and  making  an  easy  high- 


way of  communication  across  southern  France  between  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Atlantic.1 

The  Asiatic  portion  of  the  continent  is  again  contrasted  with  the 
European  portion  by  the  greater  elevation  of  its  few  mountain 
passes.  This  has  made  communication  between  the  peoples  dwelling 
on  either  side  of  the  lofty  ranges  extremely  difficult,  and  has  hindered 
commercial  development. 

156.    Climate.  —  Western  Europe  is  dominated  by  the  prevailing 

1  The  International  Geography,  pp.  124-125. 


The  Continent  of  Eurasia  241 

southwesterly  winds  which  come  from  the  Atlantic  and  are  there- 
fore laden  with  moisture.  No  great  north  and  south  mountain  bar- 
rier exists  to  deprive  these  winds  of  moisture,  and  the  rainfall  is 
abundant,  decreasing  with  remarkable  regularity  toward  the  east  as 
the  continental  character  of  the  climate  becomes  more  and  more 
pronounced.  The  temperature  is  relatively  high  from  this  oceanic 
influence,  and  the  various  crops  are  grown  farther  north  than  in 
similar  latitudes  in  regions  where  a  more  continental  climate  prevails. 
The  southern  portions  are  dry  from  the  influence  of  the  Sahara  and 
also  from  the  fact  that  the  region  is  in  the  northern  trade-wind  belt 
which  tends  to  draw  northeasterly  winds  from  a  land  area  toward 
the  ocean.1 

The  greater  portion  of  Asia  is  dominated  by  a  continental  climate, 
characterized  by  wide  annual  ranges  of  temperature.  The  vast  area 
of  land,  together  with  the  extraordinary  altitude  of  wide  areas  in 
its  central  part,  produces  characteristic  pressure  changes  which  deter- 
mine the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  at  different  seasons. 
Thus,  the  intense  cold  of  the  winter  produces  a  condition  of  high 
pressure  over  the  Mongolian  Plateau  and  the  central  Asian  land 
mass  in  general,  with  dry  winds  blowing  outward  from  this  area.  In 
summer  a  low  pressure  area  is  developed  over  the  land  from  the 
effects  of  increased  insolation,  and  winds  blow  into  this  from  the 
surrounding  regions  of  higher  pressure.  This  low  pressure  summer 
area  is  most  marked  in  the  desert  regions  of  the  Indus  and  Arabia. 
These  seasonal  variations  of  pressure  and  change  in  the  direction  of 
the  winds  determine  the  matter  of  rainfall.  In  winter  the  winds 
are  dry  from  their  anti-cyclone  source,  and  but  little  rain  falls  over 
wide  areas.  In  summer,  on  the  other  hand,  the  winds,  especially 
those  coming  from  the  ocean,  are  moisture-laden,  and  cause  heavy 
rainfall  on  the  windward  slopes  of  mountains.  The  monsoon  region 
lies  on  the  south  and  southeastern  coast  lands  and  peninsulas.  Its 
climatic  features  result  from  the  periodic  winds  above  noted,, 

1  The  International  Geography,  pp.  130-131. 

1 


242 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


157.  Economic  Features.  —  The  present  economic  life  of  Europe 
is  a  necessary  result  of  the  segregation  of  peoples  into  separate 
states  under  the  influence  of  geographical  conditions.  An  Alpine 
barrier  long  shut  off  Italy  from  France,  and  nurtured  the  republic 
of  Switzerland  in  its  fastnesses.  The  Iberian  Peninsula,  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  Europe  by  the  Pyrenees,  fostered  the  outlying 
civilization  of  Spain.  The  Middle  Rhine  Valley  was  a  frontier  of 


Roman  power  and  a  line  of  demarcation  between  primitive  Frank 
and  German;  these  primitive  tribes  developed  into  the  modern 
nations  of  France  and  Germany.  The  Rhine  delta  fostered  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  Great  Britain  was  insular,  and  Scan- 
dinavia and  Italy  peninsular.  Slavonic  peoples  occupied  the 
Central  Plain  and  developed  into  the  Russian  Empire.  The  king- 
dom of  Austria- Hungary  became  a  political  unit  in  the  Danube 


The  Continent  of  Eurasia 


243 


Basin.  Diversity  of  language  grew  out  of  this  geographical  segre- 
gation of  peoples,  and  helped  still  further  to  augment  national 
differences. 

One  striking  characteristic  of  European  civilization  is  the 
development  of  dense  populations  as  separate  political  units,  in 
comparatively  limited  areas.  As  a  result,  the  struggle  for  existence 
has  been  greatly  intensified,  and  the  nations  of  western  Europe 
have  held  their  own  only  through  a  spirit  of  commercial  activity 
that  was  the  necessary  outcome 
of  their  environment.  By 
virtue  of  commercial  enter- 
prise these  nations  have  be- 
come great  powers.  To-day 
the  most  commercially  aggres- 
sive nations  are  the  English- 
speaking  peoples,  the  Germans, 
the  French,  the  Swiss,  the 
Italians,  the  Belgians,  the 
Dutch,  and  the  Russians. 

A  belt  of  territory  between 
the  45th  and  the  55th  parallels     COMMERCE  OF  EUROPE  (1900),  APPROXI- 
of  north  latitude,  and  extend-  MATED  IN  MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 

ing    from   the    Atlantic    east-  Total,  #14,234,000 

ward  to  southern  Russia,  is  the  most  intensely  industrial  region 
in  the  world.  This  industrial  zone  includes  England  (the  Clyde 
coal  field  lies  just  outside  of  its  northern  limit),  Germany,  cen- 
tral and  northern  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  Switzerland,  north- 
ern Italy,  Austria,  and  Poland.  On  either  side  of  this  belt  lie 
regions  like  southern  France,  Spain,  the  Italian  and  Balkan  pen- 
insulas to  the  south,  and  the  Scotch  Highlands,  Denmark, 
Scandinavia,  and-  the  greater  area  of  Russia  on  the  north.  The 
latter  are  eminently  agricultural  in  contrast  to  the  manufacturing 
activity  of  the  central  zone.  The  concentration  of  population 


GREAT  BRITIAN 

8,910 

27.5% 

GERMANY 

2,608 

IS* 

FRANCE 

1,714 

12* 

NETHERLANDS 

1,485 

10* 

BELGIUM 

805 

6* 

AUSTRIA  HUNGARY 

736 

5.5% 

R  USSIA 

612 

4% 

ITALY 

59O 

43! 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 

1,774 

13* 

244  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

within  this  central  zone  has  focused  commerce  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Of  the  materials  poured  into  this  region,  breadstuffs 
form  by  far  the  most  important  item.  In  exchange  for  food, 
a  great  variety  of  manufactured  goods  are  sent  abroad  to  the 
more  purely  agricultural  regions,  both  near  and  remote.  The 
underlying  explanation  for  this  concentration  of  the  manufac- 
turing industry  and  population  within  such  narrow  limits,  is  the 
presence  of  coal  and  iron.  Coupled  with  this  is  the  facility  for 
internal  communication  and  oversea  shipping,  due  to  the  numerous 
river  systems  (the  low  relief  over  a  wide  area  enabling  their  easy 
connection  by  canals),  and  the  many  excellent  harbors  of  a  sunken 
shore  line.  Next  to  breadstuffs  the  raw  materials  for  textile 
manufacture  form  a  large  item  in  the  European  import  list. 
Without  them  the  coal  and  iron  would  be  of  less  value. 

Notwithstanding  the  increased  facilities  for  wage  earning  as  a 
result  of  the  intense  industrial  activity,  large  numbers  of  the 
population  in  this  densely  crowded  zone  of  Middle  Europe  are 
forced  to  emigrate  into  lands  of  larger  area  where  the  conditions 
of  life  are  more  favorable. 

The  geographical  barriers  to  inter- European  commerce  have  been 
largely  overcome  by  means  of  the  extensive  system  of  railways  that 
now  exists  throughout  the  continent,  and  that  connects  the  various 
countries  with  one  another  and  with  the  Orient.  Paris,  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  St.  Petersburg  have  become  great  centers  of  railroad 
lines.  (See  map  opposite.)  Conspicuous  among  these  is  the 
Russian  system,  leading  to  the  great  Siberian  railroad.  Rapid 
communication  is  secured  by  the  Indian  mail  from  London  via 
Dover  and  Calais  or  Boulogne  to  Paris  and  from  thence  through 
the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  to  Turin  and  Brindisi,  at  which  point  a 
connection  is  made  with  steamers  for  India  via  the  Suez  Canal. 
This  makes  the  time  from  London  to  Bombay  less  than  two  weeks. 
The  Northern  Express  route  runs  from  Paris,  through  Berlin,  to 
St.  Petersburg,  and  the  Orient  Express  from  Paris  via  Vienna, 


246 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


Budapest,  and  Belgrade  to  Constantinople.  The  once  almost 
insurmountable  barrier  of  the  Alps  is  pierced  by  tunnels,  among 
them  being  those  at  Mont  Cenis,  the  Brenner,  the  St.  Gotthard 
Pass,  and  the  Arlberg.  The  continent  of  Europe  is  a  network  of 
railroads  and  telegraph  lines,  a  fact  which  in  itself  indicates  the 
marvelous  commercial  development  of  the  last  century.1  The 
United  States  is  one  of  the  countries  that  furnish  industrial  Europe 
with  food-stuffs  and  raw  products  for  manufacture,  though  her 

European  export  trade  is  by  no 
means  limited  to  these  com- 
modities. She  draws  from 
Europe  a  large  amount  of  man- 
ufactured goods.  In  variety 
and  volume  of  trade  from  the 
United  States,  Europe  surpasses 
any  other  part  of  the  world  or 
all  other  parts  of  the  world 
combined. 

The  configuration  of  Asia,  as 
we  have  seen,  has  opposed  com- 
TOTAL   IMPORTS  AND    EXPORTS  OF  ASIA  mercial  development  by  isolat- 
(1900),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MILLIONS  OF  ing   its  centers   of  civilization. 
DOLLARS  Its  vast  areas  of  plateaus,  walled 

Total,  $1,988,000,000  .  .  ,  .   , 

in   by  mountain   ranges  which 

are  embraced  in  the  central  highlands,  and  the  barrier  zone  of  moun- 
tain desert  and  brackish  steppe,  extending  through  Baluchistan  and 
Afghanistan  into  the  Siberian  Plain,  for  long  centuries  shut  the 
Oriental  civilizations  from  one  another  and  from  the  commercial 
centers  of  Europe. 

Many  Asiatic  peoples  are  nomadic,  leading  a  pastoral  life,  the  con- 
ditions of  which  necessitate  a  frequent  change  of  residence.  Only  on 
the  alluvial  flood  plains  of  the  southern  and  southeastern  rivers,  and 

1  Chisholm,  The  International  Geography,  p.  137. 


INDIA 

737 

-        37$ 

STRAIT  SETTLEMENTS 

279 

-         14* 

CHINA 

259 

-         13* 

JAPAN 

250 

-        1  21/2* 

DUTCH  INDIES 

182 

91/4* 

CEYLON 

64 

3V41 

OTHER  ASIA 

217 

-         11* 

The  Continent  of  Eurasia  247 

on  the  islands  of  the  Japanese  Archipelago,  have  civilizations  worthy 
the  name,  with  their  attendant  train  of  commercial  activities,  been 
developed.  Until  within  very  recent  times  Asiatic  commerce  may 
be  said  to  have  been  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  peninsulas,  fer- 
tile delta  lands,  and  the  islands  of  the  south  and  east ;  the  vast 
interior  area,  with  its  untold  wealth  of  natural  resources,  was  prac- 
tically beyond  the  reach  of  the  newer  civilization.  Where  Euro- 
pean power  has  gained  a  foothold,  as  in  India,  and  where  the  railroad 
has  found  its  way,  as  in  Siberia  and  the  Transcaspian  region,  there 
commerce  has  prospered.  Asia  with  its  records  of  antiquity  is  only 
beginning  to  feel  the  quickening  influence  of  the  modern  commercial 
spirit. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

164.  What  are  the  natural  geographical  divisions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  what 
trade  areas  result  from  these? 

165.  Trace  the  mountain  wall  of  the  Old  World  from  western  Spain  to  the 
Bering  Sea.     How  is  this  continued  in  the  New  World? 

166.  The  Rhine  and  the   Danube  are  called  "international   rivers."     Why? 
Do   you   think  rivers  tend  to  become  more  or  less  common,  as  boundaries   of 
countries? 

167.  Show  the  influence  of  monsoons  in  southern  Asia. 

168.  Account  for  the  difference  between  isotherms  and  parallels  across  Eurasia. 
(See  Map,  p.  12.) 

169.  In  many  parts,  the  climate  of  Europe  changes  more  from  west  to  east 
than  from  south  to  north  for  the  same  distance.     Why  is  this  ? 

170.  What  historic  event  made  the  Mediterranean  Sea  less  important  commer- 
cially?    What  later  event  increased  its  importance? 

171.  Locate  on  a  map  the  principal  passages  from  the  Mediterranean  Basin 
into  Middle  Europe.    What  commercial  cities  have  developed  as  a  result  of  these 
passages  ? 

172.  Contrast  the  following  features  of  Europe  and  North  America,  keeping 
in  mind  the  commercial  effects:   (a)   contour  and  inland  seas;    (£)   height  and 
direction  of  mountains  and   position    of  passes;    (V)   position  and  direction   of 
great  plains;   and  (</)  location  and  direction  of  the  principal  navigable  rivers. 


248  The  Geography  of  Commerce 


Books  to  be  Consulted 

**  Chisholm,  The  Continent  of  Europe,  Chapter  XI.  The  International  Geogra- 
phy ;  also  Europe  in  Stanford's  Compendium. 

Freeman,  Historical  Geography  of  Europe.     2  volumes.     London,  1881. 

*  Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapter  I.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 

**  Herbertson,  The  Continent  of  Asia.  The  International  Geography,  Chapter 
XXIII. 

*Keane,  Asia.     2  volumes.     Stanford's  Compendium.     London;    1896. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND:    THE  UNITED   KINGDOM 

158.  Physical  Features.  —  The  dependence  of  the  activities  of 
a  people  upon  the  physical  surroundings  is  well  exemplified  in  the 
industrial  history  of  Great  Britain.  England,  the  most  important 
division  of  Great  Britain,  presents  two  strongly  contrasted  natural 
divisions,  —  a  lower  eastern  and  southern  and  a  higher  and  more 
rugged  western  and  northern  portion,  separated  by  a  well  marked  line 
of  heights  which  forms  the  watershed  of  the  main  river  systems. 

Eastern  England  presents  a  broad,  undulating  surface,  sloping 
gently  toward  the  southeast  and  broken  by  numerous  low  hills  and 
rolling  uplands  or  "downs."  It  includes  several  districts,  the  dis- 
tinctions being  based  upon  the  different  land  formation  of  each. 
The  western  division  is  more  broken  and  rugged  in  character,  and 
embraces  all  that  part  of  England  north  of  the  Tees'  mouth.  It 
includes  several  distinct  physical  areas  —  the  Pennine  Ridge  in  the 
north,  the  Central  Plain,  the  Lake  District  in  the  northwest,  Wales, 
and  the  Devon-Cornwall  Peninsula. 

The  distribution  of  industries  in  England  is  mainly  determined  by 
the  character  of  these  two  contrasted  divisions  and  their  included  dis- 
tricts. The  eastern  division  has  always  been  an  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral region,  the  clay  soils  of  many  parts  making  excellent  crop-growing 
lands  (especially  for  wheat),  while  the  rolling,  treeless  "downs  "  of 
the  Chalk  District  have  long  been  sheep  pastures.  The  western  divi- 
sion, on  the  other  hand,  was  earlier  a  wilderness  of  moorlands  and 
hills,  sparsely  inhabited  by  a  purely  pastoral  population.  It  was  thus 
in  strong  contrast  with  the  more  densely  settled  eastern  agricultural 

249 


REGIONAL  MAP 

SHOWING  THE 


INDUSTRIAL 

(SHADED  PORTION) 


AGRICULTURAL 

(UNSHADED  PORTION) 


DIVISIONS  OP 

ENGLAND 


J     COUNTIES 

'1'OF  \        \^ 

SOUTH  WA4-E&      f 
ANDrTfTE  LO'WC^R  SJ^Y'^^N 
BASING     T/     -"' 


80DMAY  *  CO.,  N.Y. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland  251 

portion,  its  surface  being  too  broken  and  the  climate  too  moist  to  make 
crop  growing  at  all  profitable.  Beneath  its  rugged  surface,  however, 
was  a  vast  store  of  mineral  wealth  in  the  shape  of  coal  and  iron,  the  dis- 
covery and  utilization  of  which  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
began  to  revolutionize  the  industrial  and  agricultural  life  of  England. 
To-day,  the  densely  populated  areas  are  the  districts  situated  upon,  or 
contiguous  to,  the  coal  fields,  and  the  smoke  of  great  manufacturing 
cities  now  rises  over  what  was  once  a  thinly  peopled  moorland. 

Scotland  presents  three  well-marked  physical  areas:  (i)  the 
Highlands  of  the  north,  a  bleak  and  sparsely  inhabited  waste  of 
moorlands;  (2)  the  Central  Lowland  Plain,  the  most  densely  popu- 
lated ;  and  (3)  the  Southern  Uplands. 

159.  Coal  Fields  and  Centers  of  Manufacture.  — Coal  is  the  most 
important  product  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  only  natural  product  the 
supply  of  which  more  than  meets  the  demands  of  home  consumption. 
It  is  the  basis  of  the  purchasing  power  in  British  economy,  for  as  a 
fuel  in  the  reduction  of  ores,  notably  iron,  and  in  general  manufac- 
ture, coal  creates  the  means  that  enables  the  population  to  buy  their 
necessary  food  supplies  from  abroad.  The  output  of  the  British 
mines  (1900)  was  over  252,000,000  short  tons,  of  which  slightly  over 
53,000,000  tons  were  exported. 

The  coal  fields  of  Great  Britain  may  be  grouped  in  four  areas : 
(i)  those  on  the  flanks  of  the  Pennine  ranges  and  in  the  river  basins 
draining  either  side  of  these;  (2)  the  small  Cumberland  coal  field; 
(3)  the  coal  fields  of  Wales;  and  (4)  those  of  the  Clyde  and  Forth 
in  Scotland.1 

(i)  In  Northumberland  and  Durham  is  an  important  coal  area 
which  has  developed  a  variety  of  industries,  but  chiefly  those  indus- 
tries which  are  in  relation  to  the  iron  ores  of  the  district.  The  river 
Tyne  flows  through  this  coal  field,  forming  a  highway  to  the  North 
Sea.  The  chief  towns  and  manufacturing  centers  are  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne,  North  Shields,  Tynemouth,  and  Hexam,  located  on  the  river. 
1  Green,  A  Short  Geography  of  the  British  Islands^  pp.  212-213. 


252  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

In  Durham  are  the  busy  centers  of  Gateshead  and  South  Shields  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  Sunderland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  Har- 
tlepool,  Darlington,  and  Stockton-on-Tees  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
county.  Among  the  chief  manufactures  of  the  district  are  machinery, 
iron  and  steel,  cannon,  chemicals,  soda,  and  glass.  Ship  building  is 
carried  on  at  the  seaports,  the  Elswick  works  being  especially  note- 
worthy. 

In  the  southwestern  part  of  Yorkshire,  and  extending  into  Derby- 
shire, is  the  West  Riding  coal  field.  Here  are  located  the  greatest 
cloth  and  woolen  manufacturing  centers  in  England,  and  among  the 
most  important  in  the  world.  Leeds,  Wakefield,  Bradford,  Hudders- 
field,  and  Halifax  are  among  the  chief  industrial  towns  of  the  region. 
The  woolen  industry  was  developed  long  before  the  discovery  of  the 
coal  fields,  because  of  the  nearness  of  the  sheep  pastures  of  the 
Pennine  ranges  and  the  presence  of  the  water  power  of  the  Aire  and 
the  Don.  On  the  southern  border  of  the  coal  field  is  Sheffield,  a 
noted  center  of  steel  and  cutlery  manufacture.  The  industry  is  said 
to  be  due  originally  to  the  presence  of  fine  grindstone  quarries  in 
the  district.1  The  rivers  of  this  region  flow  into  the  Humber  estu- 
ary, with  Hull  as  the  chief  seaport  and  center  for  European  trade. 

The  Lancashire  coal  field  lies  between  the  basins  of  the  Ribble 
and  the  Mersey,  which  empty  into  the  Irish  Sea.  Liverpool,  on  the 
estuary  of  the  Mersey,  is,  next  to  London,  the  largest  city  in  England. 
It  has  developed  because  of  its  nearness  to  the  coal  field,  its  har- 
bor facilities,  and  its  situation  in  relation  to  American  trade.  Origi- 
nally this  district  was,  like  its  Yorkshire  neighbor  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Pennines,  a  region  of  woolen  industry,  from  the  nearness  of  the 
sheep  pastures,  but  with  the  importation  of  cotton  it  has  become  the 
greatest  center  of  the  world  for  cotton  trade  and  manufacture.  The 
moist  climate  is  especially  favorable  to  cotton  spinning  by  keeping 
the  fiber  pliable.2  A  number  of  important  industrial  centers  have 

1  The  International  Geography,  p.  170. 

2Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  219-220. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland 


253 


developed  in  this  neighborhood.  Manchester,  connected  with  Liver- 
pool by  a  ship  canal,  is  especially  famous  for  its  cotton  factories. 
Other  noteworthy  manufacturing  towns  are  Burnley,  Oldham,  Roch- 
dale, Preston,  Bolton,  and  Wigan.  Liverpool  is  the  center  of  the 
export  and  import  trade  of  a  wide  region.  Among  English  seaports 
it  has  a  trade  movement  second  only  to  that  of  London. 

Two  coal  fields  oc- 
cur in  Staffordshire, 
one  in  the  north  and 
the  other  in  the  south. 
Between  these  is  the 
Midland  Plain,  an 
agricultural  region. 
Among  the  principal 
manufacturing  towns 
are  Wolverhampton, 
celebrated  for  its  iron 
works,  and  Burton- 
on-Trent,  noted  for 
its  breweries.  In  the 
Cheshire  Plain,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the 
county,  the  coal  fur- 
nishes fuel  for  the 
famous  "  Potteries  " 
which  are  directly  de- 
pendent upon  a  fine 
quality  of  clay  found 

in  the  locality.  Burslem,  Hanley,  and  Stoke-on-Trent  are  the  chief 
towns  of  this  district. 

A  small  coal  field  occurs  in  Leicestershire  with  Leicester  and 
Loughborough  as  the  most  important  centers,  noted  for  woolens, 
cotton  goods,  hosiery,  boots  and  shoes.  The  country  is  mainly  agri- 


COAL  FIELDS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 


254  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

cultural.  In  the  adjoining  county  of  Warwickshire,  in  the  West 
Midlands,  is  another  small  coal  field,  with  Birmingham  as  the  chief 
town  and  a  noted  center  of  iron  and  steel  manufacture.  Coventry 
and  other  neighboring  towns  likewise  produce  a  variety  of  goods, 
watches,  bicycles,  and  silks  being  among  the  more  prominent. 

(2)  In  Cumberland  there  is  a  small  coal  field  between  the  base 
of  the  Cumbrian  Hills  and  the  sea,  with  Whitehaven  as  the  center 
and  seaport  of  the  district.     The  coal  is  mainly  used  in  export  trade. 

(3)  A  number   of  scattered  coal   fields  of  small  area  occur  in 
Wales ;  there  is  also  one  large  field,  that  of  South  Wales.     Iron  is 
also  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  this  region.     The  coal  is  an 
anthracite  and  is  largely  used  in  the  smelting  of  ores  and  for  steam- 
ships.    The  tin  ore  smelted  in  this  region  formerly  came  from  Corn- 
wall,  but  it   is   now  mainly  imported  from  the  Straits  Settlements. 
The  principal   centers  of   the  smelting   industry  and  of  tin   plate 
manufacture  are  Cardiff,  Swansea,  and  other  towns  of  the  district. 
Cardiff  (with  Barry  Dock)  is  the  seaport  with  a  large  shipping  move- 
ment, chiefly  in  coal  export. 

(4)  The  Scotch  coal  fields  are  in  the  Central  Lowland  Plain  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Clyde  and  Forth,  which  form  the  transit  west  and  east 
for  the  coal  and  manufactured  products.     This  is  the  most  densely 
populated  region  in  Scotland  and  the  seat  of  many  great  industries, 
notably  the  building  of  steel  •  ships  on  the  Clyde  at  Glasgow.     This 
city,  the  largest  in  Scotland,    supports   a  variety  of  manufactures 
and  commands  a  large  ocean-going  commerce,  chiefly  with  America. 
Paisley  is  another  important  manufacturing  center  of  the  Clyde  coal 
field,   noted   especially   for   cotton,  wool,  and   silk  goods,  threads, 
muslins,  shawls,  etc.     A  large  portion  of  the  cotton  used  in  the  Clyde 
factories  is   imported   from   America.      Ship  building  is  extensively 
carried  on  at  the  great  yards  of  Greenock  and  Port  Glasgow.     The 
trade  of  the  entire  western  portion  of  the  Lowland  Plain  has  de- 
veloped largely  as  a  result  of  its  frontage  on  the  Atlantic,  giving  it 
prominence  in  world  trade,  especially  with  the  United  States, 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland 


255 


In  the  Lower  Forth  Basin  is  an  extensive  area  of  coal,  and  the 
region  is  the  seat  of  many  great  manufacturing  industries.  Notable 
among  these  are  woolen,  linen,  and  jute  manufactures.  Edinburgh 
and  its  seaport  Leith  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  are 
important  shipping  centers  for  the  European  trade.  Dundee,  on  the 


RAINFALL  OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLES 

Tay  estuary,  though  not  directly  located  on  any  coal  field,  is  an  im- 
portant manufacturing  center  and  seaport.  It  is  especially  noted  for 
its  jute  manufactures,  its  fruit  jams,  and  as  being  the  headquarters  for 
the  Arctic  whaling  fleet.  The  great  railway  bridges  built  across  the 
Tay  and  the  Forth  are  of  vast  importance  in  the  traffic  of  this  district.1 

1  The  International  Geography,  pp.  152-161. 


256  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

160.  Other  Industries  and  Centers  of  Trade.  —  Tin  and  copper 
mining  have  long  characterized  the  Cornwall  peninsula,  but  the  copper 
mines  are  now  closed  and  much  of  the  tin  used  in  manufacture  is 
imported.  The  iron  deposits  of  Great  Britain  are  inadequate  for  the 
manufacturing  demands,  and  large  quantities  are  brought  in.  Not- 
able in  this  import  is  red  hematite  from  northern  Spain.  The  British 
iron  deposits  are  mainly  the  Cleveland  ores  (a  clay  ironstone)  in 
Yorkshire,  the  ore  of  the  coal  measures,  and  the  red  hematite  of  the 
Lake  District.1  Iron  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  British 
metals. 

The  fisheries  of  Great  Britain  are  an  important  item  in  the  econ- 
omy of  the  Kingdom,  the  export  of  salted  herring  being  notable. 
The  fisheries  of  greatest  value  are  those  of  the  North  Sea.  Steam 
communication  has  revolutionized  the  fishing  and  centered  the 
industry  at  various  ports  commanding  good  harbors  and  railroad 
facilities,  as  Aberdeen  and  other  places  of  less  note. 

A  large  part  of  the  territory  of  Great  Britain  is  still  given  over  to 
pasturing.  Sheep  are  raised  in  the  hill  country  and  cattle  and  horses 
on  the  more  fertile  lower  lands.  Dairying  and  the  raising  of  pigs 
are  also  prominent  industries  in  the  lowlands.  Oats  are  the  chief 
gram  crop,  though  wheat  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent,  especially 
in  the  clay  soils  of  the  London  Basin  and  the  surrounding  country. 
Hops  are  an  important  crop  in  Kent.  Potatoes  and  turnips  are  the 
chief  root  crops,  and  truck  gardening  is  a  prominent  industry  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  large  towns  and  cities. 

London  is  the  greatest  trade  center  in  the  world.  Its  position  on 
the  Thames,  fronting  the  continent,  very  early  gave  it  a  strategic 
importance  which  has  passed  into  commercial  supremacy.  As  a  dis- 
burser  of  food-stuffs  and  of  raw  and  manufactured  material,  it  has 
become  the  focal  point  of  all  the  railway  lines  of  the  Kingdom,  as  it 
originally  was  of  the  wagon  roads.  London  has  a  shipping  move- 
ment of  some  sixteen  million  tons  annually. 

1  The  International  Geography,  p.  149. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland  257 

The  means  of  internal  communication,  both  canal  and  railway, 
have  greatly  developed  the  commercial  life  of  Great  Britain  by  ren- 
dering access  easy  to  every  part  of  the  Kingdom.  Ports  formerly  of 
small  movement  have  risen  into  importance  by  this  means.  Thus 
Southampton  has  become  a  prominent  port  in  the  American  and 
African  passenger  service  because  of  its  short  rail  connection  with 
London. 

161.  Ireland.  —  The  surface  of  Ireland  is,  broadly  speaking,  a 
central  plain  surrounded  by  a  rim  of  low  mountains  which  are  broken 
at  various  places.  The  coal  measures  occur  in  a  few  scattered 
basins  and  are  relatively  unimportant,  being  in  most  instances  not 
adapted  for  manufacturing  purposes.  The  industries  are,  therefore, 
in  the  main  agricultural;  flax  is  the  most  important  crop  in  the 
north.  The  chief  linen  manufacturing  centers  are  located  on  the 
favorable  harbors  of  the  northeastern  coast,  within  easy  carrying  dis- 
tance of  the  coal  of  the  Clyde  basin  and  the  coal  fields  of  western 
England.  Irish  linen  is  world  renowned.  Belfast  is  the  center  of 
linen  manufacture ;  it  is  in  close  proximity  to  the  flax-growing  dis- 
tricts and  to  the  coal  of  Great  Britain.  Belfast  is  also  an  important 
ship  building  center. 

Stock  raising  is  a  much  more  important  industry  in  Ireland  than  is 
crop  growing,  and  a  large  area  is  given  over  to  grazing.  The  potato 
crop  is  of  first  importance  as  a  source  of  food  supply,  but  the  liability 
to  a  fungous  disease,  which  in  the  past  has  caused  disastrous  famines, 
renders  it  of  uncertain  value  and  failure  of  the  crop  at  various  times 
has  been  one  of  the  causes  of  emigration  of  the  poorer  classes. 
Among  manufactures  that  of  brewing  holds  an  important  place. 

The  chief  ports  of  Ireland  are  Belfast  and  Dublin  (the  capital)  on 
the  east  coast ;  Londonderry  and  its  seaport  Moville  on  the  north 
with  a  considerable  agricultural  export;  Galway  and  Sligo  on  the 
west  coast  are  important  fishing  centers ;  Cork,  Queenstown,  and 
Waterford  are  on  the  south  coast.  Queenstown  is  a  calling  port  for 
the  transatlantic  mails.  Limerick  is  an  agricultural  center  on  the  river 
s 


258  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Shannon.  All  of  the  Irish  seaports  are  situated  on  favorable  inlets 
of  the  various  bays  and  are  also  within  easy  reach  of  the  interior 
agricultural  districts  by  rivers  or  through  breaks  in  the  mountain  rim. 

162.  British  Sea  Power  and  Commercial  Expansion.  —  The  average 
density  of  population  in  England  and  Wales  is  upwards  of  500  to  the 
square  mile,  that  of  Scotland  150,  and  that  of  Ireland  slightly  more 
than  130.  The  entire  area  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  is  upwards 
of  120,000  square  miles.  About  17  per  cent  of  this  area  is 
uncultivated  (mountainous  country,  inland  waters,  etc.),  some  3 
per  cent  is  woodland,  30  per  cent  pasture  land,  and  over  48 
per  cent  under  grain  and  forage  crops.  The  yield  of  food 
crops,  however,  is  far  below  the  amount  necessary  to  support  so 
dense  a  population,  and  the  United  Kingdom  is  now  forced  to  import 
the  great  bulk  of  its  breadstuffs.  Within  the  last  half  century  there 
has  been  a  steady  abandonment  of  agricultural  pursuits  on  the  part 
of  the  population,  incident  to  the  greater  wage-earning  opportunities 
offered  by  the  increase  of  manufacturing  industries.  This  is  the 
result  of  the  manifold  inventions  and  applications  of  machinery. 
Until  the  advent  of  machinery,  the  home  food  supply  was  almost 
equal  to  the  demand.  The  British  policy  of  free  trade  and  commer- 
cial expansion  is  thus  the  direct  outcome  of  economic  conditions,  and 
England  is  dependent  upon  outside  sources  for  food.  This  food 
supply  is  paid  for  by  the  manufactures  which,  as  we  have  seen,  are 
primarily  dependent  upon  coal. 

The  insular  nature  of  the  Kingdom  made  Great  Britain  originally  a 
seafaring  nation.  Her  interest  in  the  sea  has  been  further  augmented 
by  the  conditions  above  noted,  until  now  the  British  merchant  marine 
is  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  the  trade  of  the  Kingdom  is  extended 
to  every  part  of  the  earth.  Emigration  of  the  surplus  population 
built  up  colonies  in  distant  lands  with  the  consequent  extension 
of  the  Empire.  In  order  to  protect  her  trade  England  has  devel- 
oped her  naval  power,  thus  strengthening  her  position  in  the 
securing  of  a  food  supply. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland 


259 


163.  Trade.  —  The  chief  imports  upon  which  Great  Britain  imposes 
a  tariff  duty  are  tea,  cacao,  coffee,  tobacco,  spirituous  liquors,  chic- 
ory, and  dried  fruits.  Most  other  articles  are  duty  free.  England's 
largest  trade  is  with  her  colonies  and  dependencies.  Next  to  these 
the  United  States  holds  the  largest  share  in  British  commerce, 
followed  in  order  by  France,  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium,  and 
Russia.  Out  of  a  total  value  of  imports  amounting  to  XDver 
$2,500,000,000  in  1900,  the  United  States  furnished  over  26  per 
cent,  mostly  food-stuffs  and 
raw  materials.  One  hundred 
and  twenty-eight  million  bush- 
els of  wheat  were  imported 
in  1900  of  which  the  United 
States  furnished  48  per  cent, 
the  remainder  coming  from 
Argentina,  Australia,  Canada, 
India,  Russia,  and  other  coun- 
tries. Of  wheat  flour  imported 
in  1900  83  per  cent  (10,000, 
ooo  barrels)  was  from  the 
United  States.  The  United 
States  supplied  Great  Britain 
with  74  per  cent  (1900)  of 


BRITISH  POSSESSIONS 

204 

-25  1 

UNITED  STATES 

158 

-19* 

FRANCE 

73 

-    9* 

GERMANY 

59 

-    7* 

HOLLAND 

42 

-   5* 

BELGIUM 

34 

-    451 

RUSSIA 

33 

—    4$ 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

218 

-27* 

COMBINED  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  GREAT 
BRITAIN  (1900),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MIL- 
LIONS OF  POUNDS  STERLING 
Total,  ^£821, 000,000 
her  raw  cotton.  (See  P.  285) 

The  exports  of  Great  Britain  are  principally  manufactured  products 
—  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  machinery,  and  coal  forming  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  export  trade.  The  share  of  the  United  States  in 
British  exports  is  only  about  6  per  cent  of  the  whole  as  against  26 
per  cent  of  American  products  imported  by  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  total  number  of  British  vessels  in  1900  was  over  30,000, 
representing  over  10,000,000  tons  (both  steam  and  sail).  This  is 
more  than  half  of  all  the  ships  afloat,  and  a  tonnage  greater  than 
that  of  all  other  nations  combined. 


260  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

173.  What  have  been  the  political  and  economic  effects  of  England's  separa- 
tion from  the  continent  ? 

174.  Explain  the  statement,  "  Ireland  is  the  Achilles'  heel  of  England." 

175.  Upon  what  do  you  think  the  prosperity  of  Great  Britain  rests  as  the 
chief  foundation  stone  ?     What  of  her  future  ? 

176.  Explain  the  change  in  the  location  of  industries,  from  the  east  and  south 
of  England  to  the  west  and  north. 

177.  Explain  the  phrase,  "  Like  carrying  coals  to  Newcastle." 

178.  What  do  the  English  mean  by  "the  black  country"? 

179.  What  geographical  facts  have  contributed  to  making  Great  Britain  a 
carrier  for  other  nations'  trade  ? 

1 80.  Explain  the  statement,  "London  is  the  clearing  house  of  the  world." 
Why  is  this  true  ?     (See  p.  371.) 

181.  Investigate  the  "Made  in  Germany"  discussion  in  England  a  few  years 
ago,  and  the  more  recent    "  American  peril "  and  "  American  bogie."     What 
about  the  alleged  decline  of  the  British  economic  system  ?    (Williams,  Made  in 
Germany. ) 

182.  Prepare  a  statement  on  England's  Interest  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

183.  What  are  the  chief  industries  of  Ireland,  and  why  ? 

184.  What  is  a  "port  of  call"?     What  city  of  Ireland  is  an  important  port 
of  call  for  American  commerce  ? 

185.  It  is  said  that  if  England  were  cut  off  from  the  outside  world,  her  avail- 
able food  supply  would  be  exhausted  inside  of  a  month.     What  is  the  effect  of 
such  a  condition  on  the  defence  and  foreign  policy  of  Great  Britain  ? 

1 86.  In  1901  Great  Britain  imported  $925,000,000  worth  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, of  which  52  per  cent  came  from  the  United  States.      What  did  we  get  in 
return  ? 

187.  What  would  be  the  effects  on  England  if  an  embargo  were  laid  on  the 
cotton  and  food  products  of  the  United  States  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**Mill,  The  United  Kingdom,  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.     The  International 

Geography. 

*Mackinder,  Britain  and  the  British  Seas.     Appleton  &  Co. 
*Dilke,  The  British  Empire.     London;    1899. 

*Geikie,  Geography  of  the  British  Isles.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 
*Green,  A  Short  Geography  of  the  British  Islands.     Macmillans. 
**Lyde,  Commercial  Geography  of  the  British  Empire.     London;  1901. 
** Agricultural  Imports  of  the   United  Kingdom.     Department  of  Agriculture, 

Washington,  D.C.j  1902. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

FRANCE 

164.  Physical  Features.  —  In  the  south  central  part  of  France 
is  a  region  known  as  the  Central  Plateau,  which  represents  a  nucleus 
about  which  the  surrounding  land  seems  to  have  been  formed. 
It  is  tilted  toward  the  northwest,  its  southeastern  border  forming 
the  somewhat  steep  escarpment  of  the  Cevennes  Mountains.  To 
the  east  of  this  Plateau  are  the  ranges  of  the  Alps,  and  between 
these  two  is  a  depression  occupied  by  the  Rhone  Valley  which 
opens  out  into  the  coastal  plain  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  wall 
of  the  Pyrenees  stretches  across  the  southern  border  of  France  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic.  The  northwestern  part  of 
France  forms  a  peninsula  of  low  highlands  of  the  same  nature  as 
Cornwall  in  England  and  geologically  continuous  with  it.  It  em- 
braces Brittany  and  Normandy,  a  region  long  isolated  from  the 
rest  of  France  by  virtue  of  its  rugged  nature,  and  harboring  the 
remnants  of  an  ancient  stock  of  people.  West  of  the  Central 
Plateau  the  land  slopes  as  a  plain  to  the  low  Atlantic  shores  along 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  while  to  the  north  is  the  low  land  of  the  Paris 
Basin  which  extends  to  the  English  Channel.  These  two  lowland 
areas  —  the  Paris  Basin  on  the  north,  and  the  Plain  of  Aquitaine  on 
the  south — are  connected  by  a  narrow  belt  of  lowland  which  lies 
between  the  Central  Plateau  and  the  western  highland  region.  On 
the  northern  or  Belgian  frontier  of  France  is  the  low  range  of  the 
Ardennes  Mountains,  while  the  ranges  of  the  Jura  and  the  Vosges 
front  along  its  eastern  border,  north  of  the  Alps. 

These  physical  features  have  had  an  important  effect  on  the 

261 


262  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

economic  development  of  the  country  ;  the  movements  of  the  popula- 
tion from  the  remotest  times,  have  in  large  measure  been  governed  by 
them.  The  Mediterranean  border  of  France  has  long  attracted  an 
Eastern  trade,  and  the  Rhone  Valley  has  served  as  an  artery  of 
commerce  into  the  interior,  communicating  with  the  Paris  Basin 
through  the  Cote-d'Or,  north  of  the  Central  Plateau.  The  Seine 
has  drawn  population  and  commerce  into  the  Paris  Basin,  largely 
from  the  fact  of  its  emptying  into  the  English  Channel  at  no  great 
distance  from  England's  coast.  Of  the  numerous  railway  lines 
which  radiate  from  Paris,  the  two  carrying  the  greatest  volume  of 
traffic  toward  the  south,  pass  on  either  side  of  the  Central  Plateau, 
the  one  through  the  old  route  of  the  Cote-d'Or  and  Rhone  Valley 
to  Marseilles,  the  other  passing  through  the  historic  Poitiers  (where 
the  northern  and  southern  plains  are  connected  between  the  two 
highland  masses)  on  its  way  to  Bordeaux.1 

165.  Population  and  Agriculture.  —  The  average  density  of  popu- 
lation in  France  is  189  to  the  square  mile.  About  one-half  of  the 
people  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  nearly  70  per  cent 
of  the  total  area  is  farming  land,  either  under  grain  crops,  grass,  or 
temporarily  lying  fallow.  About  15  per  cent  of  the  land  is  under 
wheat,  which  is  the  largest  cereal  crop  grown.  This,  however,  is 
insufficient,  and  over  30,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  are  imported 
yearly ;  this  is  secured  mainly  from  Russia  and  the  United  States. 
Next  to  wheat,  oats  is  the  most  important  crop.  Maize  is  grown 
in  the  warm  and  moist  region  of  the  southern  lowland  plain 
(Aquitaine).  The  beet  is  cultivated  on  a  large  scale  for  distilling 
purposes  and  sugar  manufacture.  Hops  and  barley  are  grown  for 
the  extensive  brewing  industry.  Tobacco  is  raised  in  certain  sections 
of  the  country.  Market  gardening  and  fruit  growing  are  important 
occupations  in  many  parts  of  France.  Farming  in  general  has  been 
greatly  stimulated  through  the  spread  of  scientific  methods,  and  the 
natural  productivity  of  the  soil  in  many  districts  has  been  wonder- 

1  Professor  L.  Raveneau,  The  International  Geography,  p.  234. 


FRANCE 

54!_         (REUEF  AND  RAILROADS) 


Armorican  Region 

Pyrenees 

Central  Plateau 

Alps 

Vosges 

Ardennes 


264  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

fully  increased  by  the  use  of  fertilizers.  Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep 
are  raised  in  large  numbers  in  many  parts,  and  the  dairying  industry, 
especially  cheese-making,  is  a  notable  feature  of  certain  districts. 

In  wine  making  and  viniculture  France  leads  the  world,  and 
certain  districts  have  long  been  famous  for  their  fine  brands  of 
wines.  Among  the  wines  are  champagne,  from  the  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  northeastern  part,  claret  and  the  Bordeaux 
wines  from  the  south,  Burgundy  wines,  and  those  from  the  Rhone 
Valley.  Over  a  thousand  million  gallons  of  wine  are  produced 
annually  in  France. 

France  extends  over  such  a  wide  range  of  latitude  (from  the  43d 
to  beyond  the  5oth  parallel)  that  a  decided  contrast  is  seen  in  the 
productions  of  the  northern  and  southern  regions.  In  the  valley 
of  the  Rhone  and  on  the  Mediterranean  slopes,  such  semi-tropical 
products  as  the  olive  and  the  orange  are  largely  cultivated.  The 
mulberry  tree  is  grown  in  the  Rhone  Valley  and  is  the  basis  of  the 
silk  industry.  Chestnuts,  walnuts,  lemons,  and,  in  the  north,  cider 
apples,  are  products  of  importance. 

166.  Manufacturing  Industries.  —  Of  the  many  scattered  coal 
fields  those  of  the  northern  part  (Nord,  and  Pas-de-Calais)  yield 
some  60  per  cent  of  the  entire  output.  Other  fields  occur  in  the 
Loire  Basin,  Burgundy,  and  in  Tarn,  Card,  and  Aveyron  in  the  south.1 
More  than  32,000,000  tons  of  coal  are  produced  annually,  but  this 
amount  is  insufficient  and  a  considerable  quantity  is  imported.  Iron 
ores  are  somewhat  distributed,  though  90  per  cent  of  the  productive 
ores  come  from  the  departments  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle  on  the 
German  frontier.  The  annual  production  of  pig  iron  reaches  up- 
wards of  2,000,000  tons  and  that  of  steel  over  1,000,000  tons.  About 
one-fourth  of  the  French  population  is  supported  by  the  mineral  and 
textile  industries. 

France  is  well  supplied  with  building  stones,  natural  cements,  and 
fertilizing  materials.  Among  the  more  important  of  these  are  the 

1  The  International  Geography,  p.  244. 


France  265 

marbles  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  plaster  from  the  Paris  region,  phos- 
phates, the  Ardeche  hydraulic  cement,  etc.  Fine  clays  are  found  in 
the  weathered  feldspar  rocks  of  the  Central  Plateau  and  give  rise  to 
the  porcelain  and  pottery  industry.  Notable  among  the  cities  for 
this  is  Limoges.  The  precious  metals,  on  the  whole,  are  poorly  rep- 
resented in  France. 

The  textile  industries  are  centered  about  the  coal  fields  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  raw  material  supplies.  The  northern  departments 
are  conspicuously  industrial  from  the  nearness  of  the  coal,  and 
cotton,  linen,  hemp,  and  jute  manufactures  are  extensively  carried 
on.  The  silk  industry  flourishes  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and 
Saone ;  Lyons,  at  the  confluence  of  these  two  rivers,  leads  the  world 
in  silk  production.  The  centering  of  the  silk  industry  in  this  region 
was  due  to  the  early  introduction  of  the  silkworm  from  Italy  into 
the  Rhone  Valley  and  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree  (the  leaves 
of  which  are  the  food  of  the  silkworm) .  The  water  at  Lyons  is  also 
peculiarly  adapted  to  dyeing.1  The  situation  of  Lyons  was  likewise 
advantageous  to  the  trade  of  the  Rhone-Saone  Valley  and  to  Paris 
via  the  Cote-d'Or.  The  water  power  of  streams  flowing  down  the 
slopes  of  the  Vosges  has  been  utilized  in  cotton  weaving.  The  manu- 
facture of  woolen  goods  is  largely  centered  in  the  north  in  proximity 
to  the  coal  fields,  and  also  convenient  to  the  raw  material  which 
comes  from  the  native  sheep  pastured  on  the  Ardennes  slopes,  or 
is  imported  from  Great  Britain  and  South  America  through  the  near- 
by ports  of  Havre.  Dunkirk,  and  Antwerp  (Belgium). 

167.  Centers  of  Trade  and  Manufacture.  —  Paris,  centrally  situated 
in  the  great  northern  plain  (Paris  Basin),  has  developed  largely  as  a 
result  of  certain  geographical  features,  notably  its  position  on  the 
waterway  of  the  Seine,  which  empties  into  the  English  Channel ; 
this  river  also  affords  a  natural  highway  into  the  interior.  His- 
torical conditions,  aside  from  purely  geographical  influences,  have 
played  a  dominant  part  in  the  development  of  Paris  as  they  have 
1  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  page  237. 


266  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

with  many  other  cities.  To-day  it  is  the  focus  of  a  vast  trade,  not 
only  of  France,  but  of  the  entire  continent  of  Europe.  As  all  roads 
once  led  to  Rome,  now  it  may  be  said,  all  continental  railroads  lead 
to  Paris.  It  has  become  a  great  disbursing  mart  for  the  luxuries  of 
the  civilized  world,  and  is  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  costly 
dresses,  gloves,  perfumery,  porcelain,  ware,  and  jewelry. 

Of  the  northern  cities,  Lille  is  especially  famous  for  its  textile  in- 
dustries, notably  linen  goods  from  its  proximity  to  the  district  pro- 
ducing the  best  flax  in  Europe.1  Rouen,  on  the  lower  Seine,  is  the 
great  center  of  the  cotton  industry,  incident  to  the  near-by  coal  and 
likewise  its  nearness  to  the  ocean.  St.  Quentin  to  the  north  and  other 
towns  to  the  east,  are  cotton  centers  of  some  importance.  Amiens, 
Roubaix,  Tourcoing,  Reims,  Fourmies,  and  other  towns  are  all  noted 
centers  of  woolen  manufactures.  Lyons  and  St.  Etienne  (the  latter 
in  a  coal  field)  are  the  centers  for  silks  and  ribbons.  Machinery 
of  various  kinds,  locomotives,  and  railway  supplies  are  manufactured 
in  a  number  of  towns  on  and  near  the  coal  fields.  Glassware  and 
paper  are  produced  at  various  places  in  the  north,  east,  and  west. 
Contrasted  with  northern  France,  southern  France  presents  a  com- 
paratively small  proportion  of  the  manufacturing  industries,  being 
largely  an  agricultural  region. 

The  chief  seaports  of  France  are  Marseilles,  commanding  the 
Rhone  Valley  and  the  Mediterranean  trade,  though  now  of  relatively 
less  importance  than  formerly,  owing  to  the  Mont  Cenis  and  other 
tunnels  which  connect  central  Europe  with  Genoa  and  other  more 
eastern  ports.  The  chief  industries  of  the  city  are  the  refining  of 
olive  oil,  the  making  of  soap,  and  of  macaroni  from  Italian  wheat. 
Narbonne  and  Cette  are  other  ports  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Gulf  of  Lyons.  Of  the  Atlantic  ports,  Bordeaux,  at  a  point,  where 
the  Garonne  flows  into  the  Gironde  estuary,  has  long  been  famous 
for  its  wine  export.  St.  Nazaire  is  the  Loire  seaport,  the  former 
port  of  Nance  farther  inland,  having  been  cut  off  from  the  sea  by 

1  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  p.  237. 


France  267 

the  silting  up  of  the  river.  Havre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  is  the 
seaport  of  Paris  and  is  important  in  the  United  States  and  South 
American  trade.  By  extensive  work  in  deepening  the  channel  of 
the  Seine,  the  city  of  Rouen,  further  inland,  has  been  made  a  sea- 
port.1 Dunkirk,  at  the  southern  end  of  the  North  Sea,  is  one  of  the 
chief  centers  for  the  wool  imports  and  for  the  export  of  manufac- 
tures from  the  neighboring  industrial  sections  of  the  northern 
coal  fields. 

168.  Internal  Communications.  —  Paris  is  the  center  of  a  very  ex- 
tensive railroad  system.  The  northern  railway  lines  diverge  to  the 
great  industrial  sections  of  northern  France  and  carry  an  enormous 
volume  of  traffic  over  comparatively  short  distances.  The  heavier 
volume  of  traffic  is  between  Paris  and  Marseilles,  via  Lyons  by  the 
road  which  follows  the  old  natural  highway  of  the  Cote-d'Or  into  the 
Rhone  Valley.  The  main  line  of  the  Orleans  system  passes  along 
the  western  side  of  the  Central  Plateau  through  Poitiers  to  Bordeaux, 
where  it  connects  with  the  Southern  system,  and  thus  traverses  the 
old  historic  route  through  the  narrow  plain  that  connects  the  north- 
ern with  the  southern  lowland.  There  are  in  France  upwards  of 
23,000  miles  of  railroad,  representing  a  yearly  freight  volume  of  over 
120,000,000  tons. 

The  river  navigation  of  France  is  extensively  improved  and  the 
various  basins  are  connected  by  canals.  The  entire  country,  espe- 
cially the  northern  portion,  is  a  network  of  waterways.  The  Marne, 
a  tributary  of  the  Seine,  is  thus  connected  with  the  Saone-Rhone 
system.  Another  canal  —  the  Burgundy  —  connects  the  two  systems 
through  the  Cote-d'Or.  The  basins  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Seine  are 
joined  by  several  canals;  similarly  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone  are 
connected  by  a  canal  through  the  natural  gap  or  "  Burgundy  Gate," 
between  the  Vosges  and  the  Jura  mountains.  An  extensive  system 
of  canals  connects  the  rivers  of  northern  France  with  those  of 
Belgium.  The  Loire  is  connected  with  the  Seine  and  with  the 

1  Ibid.,  p.  239. 


268 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


Saone,  and  in  the  south  the  Canal  du  Midi  opens  up  a  through 
waterway  between  the  Garonne  and  the  Mediterranean.  Steam  and 
electricity  are  in  use  as  means  of  transportation  on  many  of  the 
canals.  Heavy  materials,  both  raw  products  and  manufactures,  are 
transferred  by  water ;  a  large  amount  of  coal  and  iron  is  handled  in 
this  way.  About  70  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  traffic  in  France  is 
carried  by  the  railway  and  the  balance  by  inland  waterways. 

169.  Trade.— The  chief  ex- 
port trade  of  France  is  in 
textile  manufactures,  especially 
woolens  and  silks.  Wine  also 
forms  a  considerable  item  of 
export.  Of  the  imports,  raw 


UNITED  KINGDOM 

1903               =28T/«/. 

BELGIUM 

1020                   =15£ 

GERMANY 

892                     —  13V25J 

UNITED  STATES 

765                   --  1  lVi2°{ 

ALGERIA 

425                   -     61/25£ 

SPAIN 

355                    -    5V2^0 

ARGENTINA 

335                    -    5% 

ITALY 

3O5                    —    41/e?« 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

634                   -=10$ 

COMMERCE  OF  FRANCE   (1900),  APPROXI- 
MATED IN  MILLIONS  OF  FRANCS 
Total,  6,634,000,000  Francs  l 


textile  materials,  breadstuffs, 
coal,  and  coke  (from  neigh- 
boring coal  fields)  form  a 
large  proportion;  wool  and 
coal  represent  the  articles  of 
greatest  import  value  (1901). 
The  largest  trade  is  with 
Great  Britain,  Belgium  being 
second.  Germany  stands  third 
in  the  export,  and  fourth  in  the  import  trade  of  France ;  the 
United  States  holds  second  place  among  the  countries  from  which 
imports  are  received  (1901).  About  5  per  cent  of  the  United  States 
exports  are  sent  to  France,  and  about  9  per  cent  of  our  total 
imports  are  of  French  origin. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

1 88.  What  are  the  mountains  on  the  boundaries  of  France  ?     What  highland 
area  divides  the  country? 

189.  Trace  the  river  systems  of  France  and  show  why  they  are  well  located  for 
navigation. 

1  For  table  of  values  see  p.  285. 


France  269 

190.  What  are  the  chief  productions  and  industries  of  the  Rhone  Valley  ? 

191.  What   are   the   physical   conditions   favorable  to  producing  the  vine  ? 
What  are  the  "  fruits  of  the  vine  "  ? 

192.  What  are  some  of  the  social  and  economic  characteristics  of  the  French 
people  ?     What  forms  of  manufacture  do  they  engage  in  most  largely  ? 

193.  Why  does  France  deem  it  necessary  to  keep  up  an  extensive  military 
system  ?     What  are  the  effects  of  militarism  upon  the  economic  prosperity  of  th-j 
nations  of  Europe  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**  A.  de  Lapparent  and  L.  Raveneau,  France,  Chapter  XV.      The  International 

Geography. 

Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapter  V.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 
**Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  233-239. 

*  Jones,  Economic  Life  of  France,  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Volume  LV. 
Guyot,  Commerce  and  Manufactures  of  France,  Chautauquan,  Volume  XXV. 

*  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States. 
**  The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 

**French  Colonies.      British   Diplomatic   and  Consular  Reports,  Miscellaneous 
Series  No.  520. 


CHAPTER  XX 

SPAIN  AND   PORTUGAL 

170.  The  Iberian  Peninsula. — The  larger  part  of  the  Iberian 
Peninsula  is  a  table-land  of  moderate  elevation  with  mountain 
ranges  in  the  north  and  the  south ;  the  entire  plateau  ends  rather 
abruptly  along  a  coast  line  which  has  but  few  indentations.  The 
peninsula  is  shut  off  from  the  rest  of 'Europe  by  the  Pyrenees;  its 
even  shore  line  tends  further  toward  its  isolation.  These  physical 
features  have  had  a  marked  effect  on  the  development  of  the  two 
countries  embraced  within  its  borders.  The  peninsula  lies  out  of  the 
main  lines  of  European  traffic,  —  a  huge  block  of  land  thrust  like  a 
barrier  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic,  broken  at  the 
strait  of  Gibraltar  where  it  approaches  Africa. 

The  climate  is  characterized  by  a  wide  range  of  yearly  temperature. 
In  the  northern  and  northwestern  portions  the  climate  is  of  the 
oceanic  type,  with  abundant  rainfall.  The  interior  and  the  south- 
eastern provinces,  shut  off  from  the  rain -bearing  winds  by  the  moun- 
tain ranges,  have  an  arid  climate  ;  the  date  palm,  a  tree  of  the  African 
desert  region,  grows  in  some  localities.  Here  agriculture  can  be  car- 
ried on  only  by  means  of  irrigation.  Tropical  forms  of  vegetation, 
as  the  banana  and  sugar  cane,  are  grown  on  the  Mediterranean  coast 
lands,  while  temperate  fruits,  like  the  apple,  are  cultivated  in  the  north. 

There  are  very  few  good  harbors,  the  estuaries  of  the  Duero  and 
the  Tagus  in  Portugal  being  among  the  best.  Portugal  owes  its 
independence  largely  to  certain  natural  features,  deep  river  gorges 
separating  its  territory  from  the  interior  table-land  of  Spain.1  The 

1  Fischer,  The  International  Geography,  p.  368. 
270 


Spain  and  Portugal  271 

Portuguese,  from  their  maritime  position,  have  always  been  a  seafaring 
people. 

171.  Resources  and  Industries.  —  The  total  area  of  the  peninsula  is 
over  232,000  square  miles.  The  average  density  of  population  is  low 
when  compared  with  that  of  most  European  countries  (Spain  about 
90,  Portugal  145.4  to  the  square  mile).  Sparseness  of  population  is 
due  largely  to  lack  of  communication  and  to  government  and  physical 
conditions,  adverse  to  the  centralizing  of  great  industries  and  to  the 
best  development  of  agriculture.  Where  irrigation  is  practiced,  many 
varieties  of  fruits  and  vegetables  are  raised.  In  the  southern  provinces 
oranges,  almonds,  figs,  and  other  tropical  and  subtropical  fruits  are 
grown.  Chick  peas  are  largely  used  as  a  food.  Wheat  and  maize  are 
grown  in  certain  localities,  the  former  being  an  important  crop  of  the 
more  fertile  soils  of  the  interior  table-land.  Raisins  and  wines,  the  olive 
and  olive  oil,  the  mulberry,  and  raw  silk  are  products  of  the  coast 
lands,  especially  along  the  Mediterranean.  Cork  is  obtained  from  the 
bark  of  a  species  of  oak.  Esparto,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper, 
is  likewise  a  Spanish  production.  The  famous  merino  breed  of  sheep, 
producing  the  finest  variety  of  wool,  are  pastured  on  the  table-lands 
of  the  interior,  but  these  sheep  have  been  introduced  into  other  parts 
of  the  world  and  Spain  has  lost  the  monopoly  of  merino  wool. 

The  Iberian  Peninsula  is  exceedingly  rich  in  mineral  resources, 
but  owing  to  the  unfavorable  conditions  already  cited,  and  to  the 
general  indifference  of  the  population  toward  the  development  of 
industries,  they  are  only  partially  exploited.  Iron  ore  is  abundant 
in  many  places,  and  high  grade  ores  form  an  important  shipment 
from  the  Viscayan  port  of  Bilboa  (this  port  ships  a  larger  amount  of 
iron  ore  than  any  other  continental  seaport)  .*•  A  high  quality  of  ore 
is  also  produced  from  the  mines  of  the  province  of  Murcia  in  the 
southeast.  Coal  is  found  in  large  quantities,  but  is  unfavorably 
located  and  therefore  largely  undeveloped.  Copper,  silver,  lead,  zinc, 
and  cinnabar  (mercury)  are  all  important  minerals ;  the  quicksilver 
l  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  287-288. 


272  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

(mercury)  mines  of  Almaden  are  among  the  most  noted  in  the  world, 
the  only  other  quicksilver  mines  of  importance  being  in  California 
(New  Almaden).  Phosphorite  (used  as  a  fertilizer),  rock  salt,  and 
bay  salt  are  other  valuable  mineral  products. 

The  manufacturing  industries  are  comparatively  unimportant  and 
they  have  not  been  developed  in  relation  to  coal  and  iron  as  they 
have  in  other  industrial  countries. 

Barcelona,  in  the  province  of  Catalonia,  is  the  most  densely  popu- 
lated city  in  Spain,  and  the  center  of  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing industries.  Its  supremacy  is  due  to  its  fine  natural 
harbor.  In  the  Basque  provinces  of  the  north,  manufacturing  is 
carried  on  to  some  extent,  the  water  from  the  streams  of  the  Canta- 
brian  Mountains  being  used  as  a  source  of  power.  Toledo  is  still 
noted  for  its  sword  blades ;  silk-spinning  and  the  plaiting  of  esparto 
grass  are  carried  on  as  local  industries  in  certain  places. 

172.  Trade  Centers  and  Commercial  Relations.  —  Recent  years 
have  witnessed  a  further  decline  of  Spain's  commercial  interests, 
with  the  loss  of  her  colonies  in  America  and  the  Far  East.  A  faulty 
colonial  system,  and  the  attempted  exploitation  of  her  colonies 
led  to  the  cutting  off  of  such  rich  possessions  as  Cuba,  Porto  Rico 
and  the  Philippine  Islands.  Cartagena  and  Malaga,  as  well  as 
Barcelona,  are  Mediterranean  ports.  The  port  of  Bilboa  on  the 
north  coast,  already  mentioned,  has  been  made  available  by  dredg- 
ing and  the  deepening  of  the  river  on  which  it  is  located.  Other 
Spanish  ports  of  some  importance  are  Seville,  Tarragona,  Santander, 
Huelva,  Palos,  Cadiz,  etc.  Lisbon,  on  the  Tagus,  and  Oporto,  on  the 
Duero,  are  the  chief  Portuguese  seaports.  Oporto  gave  its  name 
to  the  famous  "port  wine."  Madrid,  the  capital  of  Spain,  is  an  im- 
portant trade  center  of  the  interior.  The  Azores  (chief  port  Fayal) 
and  the  Madeira  Islands  (chief  port  Funchal)  belong  to  Portugal, 
as  do  also  the  Cape  Verde  Islands.  The  Canary  Islands  belong 
to  Spain.  The  Azores  grow  large  quantities  of  oranges  and  pine- 
apples. The  Madeira  Islands  produce  a  variety  of  tropical  fruits  and 


Spain  and  Portugal  273 

are  likewise  famous  for  their  wine  production  and  export.  The 
Canaries  produce  wine,  fruit,  and  vegetables ;  the  export  of  early 
vegetables  to  the  London  market  is  of  some  importance. 

The  greatest  amount  of  Spanish  trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  France 
being  second ;  imports  from  the  United  States  amount  to  about  twice 
the  exports,  but  the  trade  either  way  is  inconsiderable, 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

194.  When  Napoleon  established  a  branch  of  his  empire  in  Spain,  he  said, 
"  The  Pyrenees  have  ceased  to  exist."     Discuss  this. 

195.  How  can  you  account  for  a  region  once  so  prosperous  as  the  Iberian 
Peninsula  being  reduced  to  its  present  state  ? 

196.  Make  a  statement  of  the  importance  of  Gibraltar  as  a  strategic  post. 

197.  On  which  shore  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  are  there  the  best  harbors  ? 

198.  Explain  the  recent  decline  of  the  Spanish  colonial  system. 

199.  A  French  proverb  says,  "  Africa  begins  at  the  Pyrenees."     Explain  this. 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**  The  Iberian  Peninsula,  Chapter  XXI,  in  The  International  Geography. 
Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapter  IV.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 
*  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  284-290. 
**  Jones,  Resources  and  Industries  of  Spain,  North  American  Review,  Volume 

CLXVIL 
**  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States.     Bureau  of  Foreign  Commerce. 


CHAPTER   XXI 


BELGIUM  AND   HOLLAND 

173.  Physical  Features.  —  Belgium  and  Holland  are  grouped 
under  the  general  head  of  the  Low  Countries.  They  occupy,  for 
the  most  part,  the  low  flat  land  that  fronts  the  southeastern  border  of 
the  North  Sea  and  which  in  many  places  is  below  sea  level.  In  the 

southeastern  portion  of  Bel- 
gium the  country  rises  into  a 
plateau  of  worn-down  moun- 
tains, the  Ardennes,  in  which 
occur  deposits  of  coal  and  a 
great  variety  of  building  stones 
(limestones,  sandstones,  and 
slates).  Two  large  and  im- 
portant rivers  —  the  Meuse 
and  the  Scheldt  —  cross  Bel- 
gium from  the  southern  high- 
land, flowing  northward  to  the 
sea;  and  these  have  been  im- 
proved in  various  places  to 
permit  of  navigation.  Canals 
have  been  extensively  built 
throughout  Belgium  with  the  threefold  purpose  of  promoting  inland 
navigation,  draining  marshy  tracts,  and  irrigating  sandy  stretches  of 
country. 

Holland  is  virtually  the  delta  formed  by  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse 
(Maas  of  the  Dutch),  and  is  a  low  tract  of  dunes  and  extensive 

274 


RELIEF  OF  THE  Low  COUNTRIES 


Belgium  and  Holland  275 

marshes,  a  large  part  of  which  is  below  the  level  of  the  neighboring 
sea.  Land  has  been  reclaimed  by  the  building  of  dikes  or  embank- 
ments along  the  exposed  shores  and  also  around  low  inland  tracts 
known  as  "polders";  from  the  latter  water  is  pumped  by  wind- 
mills into  the  numerous  canals  that  form  a  vast  network  of  water- 
ways. These  features  give  to  Holland  its  characteristic  scenery. 
There  are  no  highland  tracts  in  Holland,  and  therefore  no  impor- 
tant mineral  deposits,  the  population  depending  almost  entirely  upon 
agricultural  industries,  manufactures,  and  external  commerce. 

174.  Industrial  Belgium.  —  With  an  area  of  only  a  little  more 
than  n,ooo  square  miles,  Belgium  supports  a  population  of  upwards 
of  6,000,000  (an  average  density  of  588  per  square  mile).  This  she 
is  able  to  do  chiefly  through  the  high  development  of  her  agricul- 
tural and  industrial  resources.  The  coal  fields  and  iron  deposits  of 
the  southeast  have  given  rise  to  a  great  variety  of  manufactures. 
Steel  work  and  machinery  construction  are  carried  on  at  Liege  and 
Charleroi ;  the  former  town  is  also  the  center  of  firearms  manufacture. 
Cutlery  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale,  notably  at  Liege,  Hainaut, 
and  Namur.  Woolen  and  cotton  textiles  form  a  leading  feature  of 
Belgian  industry,  and  are  largely  centered  about  Verviers  and  Ghent. 
Verviers  is  a  very  ancient  seat  of  the  weaving  industry,  being  espe- 
cially noted  for  its  woolen  yarns.  A  small  stream  in  its  vicinity,  the 
water  of  which  contains  no  lime  salts,  has  been  dammed  and  utilized.1 
Belgium  has  long  been  noted  for  its  flax  fields,  and  for  the  high 
quality  of  its  linens  and  lace  manufactures,  more  particularly 
in  the  Flemish  districts  of  the  western  part.  The  manufacture  of 
glassware,  pottery,  and  chemicals  is  extensively  carried  on  in  the 
coal  regions.  Ghent  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture 
and  favorably  located  for  trade,  at  the  union  of  the  Lys  and  the 
Scheldt.  A  ship  canal  has  been  built  to  Ghent  to  enable  vessels  of 
deeper  draught  to  reach  it  from  the  Scheldt  estuary. 

Though  the  mineral  resources  of  Belgium  —  coal,   iron,  building 

1  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  p.  241. 


276  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

stones,  zinc,  etc.  —  are  leading  factors  of  wealth  and  prosperity,  the 
agricultural  resources  are  by  no  means  unimportant.  As  already 
mentioned,  Belgian  flax  is  famous.  It  is  produced  mainly  in  the  Lys 
Basin  ;  the  waters  of  this  river  contain  a  minimum  of  lime  salts,  which, 
as  in  the  case  of  wool,  act  injuriously  in  the  cleansing  of  the  fiber. 
The  sheep  pastures  of  the  Ardennes  have  long  been  sources  of  raw 
material  for  the  woolen  mills  of  the  region,  though  a  vast  quantity  of 
wool  is  now  imported  from  Argentina  and  Uruguay.  Cereal  crops 
and  grass  land  cover  about  two-thirds  of  the  country.  The  beet 
is  largely  raised,  both  for  sugar  manufacture  and  distilling  purposes. 
On  the  plains  of  the  northeastern  section  (Campine)  cattle  raising 
is  extensively  carried  on.  Belgium  is  noted  for  its  heavy  draught 
horses  of  Flemish,  Brabant,  and  Ardennes  stock. 

175.  Commercial  Relations.  —  Belgium  is  small  in  area,  but  has 
numerous  and  varied  resources  (especially  coal  and  iron)  ;  these 
features,  with  the  density  and  high  efficiency  of  the  population,  have 
given  it  a  prominent  place  among  the  industrial  and  commercial 
countries  of  the  world.  It  is  a  typical  industrial  state  ;  with  a  sea  front 
of  forty-two  miles,  and  an  extensive  system  of  railroads  and  canals,  it 
has  developed  a  large  and  varied  trade  with  neighboring  countries 
and  with  those  at  a  distance.  Its  imports  are  breadstuff's  and 
raw  materials  for  textile  manufactures,  as  well  as  a  great  variety  of 
needful  products  from  tropical  and  other  lands.  Of  the  exports, 
coal  heads  the  list  in  value,  followed  by  woolen  yarns,  linen  and 
various  other  raw  and  manufactured  products.  France  is  first  in  the 
countries  from  which  goods  are  imported,  followed  by  the  United 
States,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain,  in  the  order  named  (1901). 
Belgian  exports  go  most  largely  to  Germany,  followed  by  France, 
Great  Britain,  Holland,  and  the  United  States.  Of  the  United 
States'  exports  as  a  whole,  about  3  per  cent  go  to  Belgium,  and  of 
the  imports  a  little  over  1.5  per  cent  come  from  Belgium  (1901). 

Brussels,  the  capital,  has  numerous  industries,  and  is  a  com- 
mercial center  of  importance.  It  is  especially  noted  for  its  laces. 


Belgium  and  Holland 


277 


Antwerp,  on  the  Scheldt  estuary,  some  sixty  miles  inland,  is  the  chief 
Belgian  port,  and  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  shipping 
points  of  Europe.  It  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  with  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  has  a  trade  movement  of  millions  of  tons  annually. 

176.  Holland.  —  Lacking  the  mineral  wealth  of  its  neighbors,  Hol- 
land has  turned  its  attention  largely  to  agricultural  pursuits,  and  the 
industries  dependent  thereon. 
More  than  60  per  cent  of  the 
land  is  under  crops,  gardens, 
and  pasture  grass  ;  a  small  area 
is  forest-planted,  and  about  20 
per  cent  is  unreclaimed.  The 
alluvial  soil  of  the  rivers  and 
the  clay  deposits  of  the  sea 
are  exceptionally  fertile,  and 
the  richness  and  abundance 
of  the  .grass  has  given  promi- 
nence to  grazing  and  dairying 


FRANCE 

801 

-=20.5* 

GERMANY 

749 

-19.5* 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

660 

-    17* 

NETHERLANDS 

414 

-10.5* 

UNITED  STATES 

343 

-  8.5* 

RUSSIA 

157 

=     44 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

757 

-20* 

industries,  stock  raising  (both    COMMERCE  OF  BELGIUM  (1900),  APPROXI- 


horses  and  cattle),  and  butter 
and  cheese  making  being  char- 
acteristic Dutch  industries. 


MATED  IN  MILLIONS  OF  FRANCS 
Total,  3,881,000,000  Francs 

The  sand  and  clay  soils  of  various 
sections  affect  the  nature  of  the  grass,  producing  differences  in  the 
breeds  of  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle  in  the  different  parts.1  Market 
gardening,  fruit  culture,  and  the  growing  of  flowers  (tulips  and  other 
justly  celebrated  Dutch  bulbs)  are  notable  occupations.  Rye,  buck- 
wheat, and  potatoes  are  staple  crops  of  the  sandy  lands ;  beet  root, 
wheat,  hops,  and  tobacco  are  staples  of  the  more  loamy  soils. 

A  certain  amount  of  manufacturing  is  carried  on,  notably  in  cotton, 
woolen,  and  linen  textiles,  sugar,  margarine,  quinine  and  various 
chemicals,  metal  work,  agricultural  implements,  etc.  Brick  making, 
from  the  abundance  of  good  brick  clay,  quarrying  of  sandstone,  and 

1  Kan,  The  International  Geography,  p.  219. 


278 


TJie  Geography  of  Commerce 


the  mining  of  bog  iron  ore  and  a  very  small  amount  of  coal  (the 
Limburg  mines  near  the  German-Belgian  frontier)  are  other  indus- 
tries of  some  prominence.  The  density  of  the  population  varies  with 
the  character  of  the  soil  in  different  sections,  being  highest  in  the 
productive  districts  of  the  river  valleys,  in  the  southeastern  industrial 
section,  and  near  the  large  cities.  In  the  former  districts  it  is 
upwards  of  250  per  square  mile.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  large  com- 
mercial centers  it  averages  from  500  to  1000  per  square  mile.1 

177.   Trade.  —  The  Dutch   have   long  been  a  seafaring   people; 
Holland  was  among  the  foremost  nations  in  taking  advantage  of  the 

regions  opened  up  by  the  era 
of  discovery.  It  is  natural, 
therefore,  that  external  com- 
merce should  largely  engage 
their  attention,  since  products, 
both  raw  and  manufactured, 
must  come  from  abroad. 
Great  expense  and  labor  have 
been  expended  in  keeping  the 
harbors  free  of  silt,  and  in  the 
building  of  ship  canals  to  ports 
which  are  naturally  blocked  by 
river  and  sea  deposits.  Am- 
sterdam and  Rotterdam  have 
thus  come  to  be  among  the 
foremost  commercial  seaports 
of  the  world,  especially  in  the 
transient  trade  (ports  of  entry  and  exit  with  trade  of  other  countries). 
Amsterdam  is  on  the  Zuider  Zee,  fifteen  miles  across  the  peninsula  by 
the  North  Sea  Ship  Canal  Rotterdam,  on  the  Maas  (Meuse),  is  like- 
wise rendered  available  as  a  seaport  by  the  ship  canal  that  reaches 
to  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Other  ports  of  less  note  are  Flushing 

1  Kan,  The  International  Geography,  pp.  221-223 


PRUSSIA 

1231.4 

—  37.5)1 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

670.9 

-  20f. 

BELGIUM 

348.6 

-12* 

UNITED  STATES 

348.1 

-10.BJ5 

DUTCH  E.  INDIES 

336.3 

-10* 

RUSSIA 

155.0 

-    5# 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

155.0 

-  5% 

COMBINED  IMPORTS  FOR  HOME  CONSUMP- 
TION AND  EXPORTS  OF  NETHERLANDS 
(IQOO),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MILLIONS  OF 
GUILDERS 

Total,  3,280,300,000  Guilders 


Belgium  and  Holland  279 

(Vlissingen) ,  Schiedam,  Groningen,  Dordrecht,  and  Harlingen. 
Natural  communication  is  facilitated  by  the  extensive  system  of 
canals,  by  good  roads,  and  by  railways. 

Holland  is  a  free-trade  country.  It  imports  food-stuffs,  coal, 
raw  and  manufactured  products  in  general.  Among  the  more  im- 
portant of  the  exports  are  butter,  cheese,  margarine,  vegetables, 
sugar,  flax,  etc.  The  merchant  marine  numbers  upwards  of  3000 
vessels.  Its  largest  trade  in  imports  for  home  consumption,  is  with 
Germany,  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  Belgium,  in  the  order  named.  It  exports  goods  chiefly  to  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  and  Belgium,  the  United  States  having  a  little 
over  4.5  per  cent  of  the  total  amount.  Holland's  share  in  the  United 
States'  trade  amounts  to  a  little  over  2  per  cent  of  the  total  amount 
imported  and  about  5.5  per  cent  of  the  entire  value  of  exports 
(1901). 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

200.  How  much  is  included  by  the  "  Low  Countries  "  ?     What  are  the  other 
names  by  which  this  region  is  called  ?     Why  ? 

20 1.  Why  should  canals  be  so  common  in  Holland  ?     Why  so  many  windmills? 

202.  What  is  the  chief  commercial  city  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  what  is  the 
nature  of  its  trade  ? 

203.  What  has  been  the  influence  of  the  Rhine  on  the  commercial  develop- 
ment of  Holland  ?      What  is  a  "  buffer  state  "  ? 

204.  How  can  you  account  for  the  raising  of  flax  so  extensively  in  Belgium  ? 

205.  Locate  the  agricultural  and  industrial  regions  of  Belgium ;   notice  the 
relations  of  the  latter  to  similar  regions  in  France  and  Germany. 

206.  What  are  some  of  the  striking  national  traits  of  the  Dutch  people,  and 
how  are  these  shown  in  the  productions  of  Holland  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*Special  Reports  of  British  Foreign  Office,  Miscellaneous  Series. 
**Chapter  XIV,  The  Low  Countries,  in  The  International  Geography. 
^Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapter  X.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 
*Chisholm,  Handbook    of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.    240-245.      London  and 

New  York. 
**  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States.     Bureau  of  Foreign  Commerce. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE 

178.  Physical  Features.  —  The  German  Empire  embraces  four 
physical  regions  :  (i)  on  the  southeast  border  of  Bavaria  the  north- 
ern Alpine  ranges  are  just  included  within  German  territory;  (2) 
northwest  of  this  is  the  Alpine  Foreland,  and  the  Southwestern 
Highlands  forming  the  Plateau  of  Bavaria;  (3)  to  the  north- 


PJIYSICAL  REGIONS 
AND  PRODUCTS 


BORUAY  &  CO.. 


ward  is  the  Central  Highland  Region,  reaching  from  the  Carpathian 
range  to  west  of  the  Rhine  Valley ;  and  (4)  beyond  this  again,  the 
flat  expanse  of  the  North  German  Plain  (a  portion  of  the  Great  Plain 
of  Europe)  extends  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas. 

280 


The  German  Empire .  281 

The  Rhine  is  essentially  the  great  natural  highway  of  Germany, 
from  the  frontier  of  Switzerland  to  Holland.  East  of  the  Black 
Forest  the  Danube  drains  the  Bavarian'  Plateau.  The  Vistula,  Oder, 
Elbe,  and  Weser  drain  the  Central  Highland  and  flow  across  the 
North  German  Plain,  —  the  two  former  into  the  Baltic  Sea,  the  two 
latter  into  the  North  Sea. 

179.  Population  and  Industrial  Life. — The  average  density  of 
the  German  population  is  about  270  to  the  square  mile.  Where 
coal,  iron,  and  other  mineral  ore  deposits  occur,  however,  the  density 
is  increased  considerably  higher.  The  Kingdom  of  Saxony  is  among 
the  most  densely  populated  regions  in  the  world,  with  an  average  of 
over  650  per  square  mile  ;  this  is  in  part  a  result  of  the  intense  indus- 
trial activity  developed  in  the  coal  fields  of  the  district.1 

Though  the  manufacturing  industries  and  mining  have  assumed  a 
vast  importance,  Germany  is  still  largely  an  agricultural  country, 
over  40  per  cent  of  the  population  being  engaged  in  some  agricul- 
tural pursuit.  Available  land  is  under  a  high  state  of  cultivation ; 
and  upwards  of  90  per  cent  of  the  area  is  productive.  Nearly 
4,000,000  acres  are  under  wheat  and  about  14,000,000  acres  under 
rye,  the  latter  being  the  staple  breadstuff  of  the  country  (the  "  black 
bread  "  of  the  peasant  class).  Barley  and  oats  are  also  raised  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  the  potato  has  become  a  food  crop  of  great 
importance,  over  8,000,000  acres  being  given  to  potato  cultivation 
(1901).  The  distillation  of  spirits  from  potatoes  is  carried  on  in 
the  northeastern  sections.  Potatoes  are  so  largely  grown  in  Germany, 
that  a  surplus  of  the  product  is  exported.  Beet  raising  and  the  produc- 
tion of  beet  sugar  have  assumed  a  place  of  vast  importance  in  German 
economy.  The  refuse  in  the  process  of  sugar  manufacture  is  fed  to 
hogs,  which  are  raised  in  large  numbers  as  a  consequence.  Hops 
are  grown  extensively,  especially  in  the  southwestern  portion  of 
the  Empire.  The  brewing  industry  is  very  prominent  in  Ger- 
many. Tobacco  is  grown  in  the  district  southwest  of  the  Middle 

1  Kirchhoff,    The  International  Geography,  p.  279. 


282  TJie  Geography  of  Commerce 

Rhine.  The  vine  is  cultivated  in  the  valley  of  the  Middle  Rhine, 
the  climate  being  suitable  and  the  soil  well  adapted  to  its  growth. 
Several  fine  varieties  of  wines  are  produced  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Rhine  and  its  tributaries.  The  Rhine  district  is  the  most  northern 
region  of  the  world,  in  which  the  vine  is  successfully  cultivated.  As 
regards  the  general  distribution  of  agricultural  products,  the  sugar 
beet  and  the  potato  are  the  crops  of  the  sandy  soil  and  the  cold, 
damp  climate  of  the  North  German  Plain.  In  the  same  region  rye 
and  oats  are  grown,  as  are  some  flax  and  hemp.  In  the  warmer 
southwestern  portions  (the  basin  of  the  Middle  Rhine)  hops,  wine, 
fruits,  tobacco,  and  wheat  are  the  chief  productions. 

Richly  productive  meadows  and  grass  lands,  form  pasturage  for 
large  numbers  of  cattle  and  horses;  dairying  is  a  leading  in- 
dustry in  many  parts  of  the  country.  The  raising  of  sheep  has 
largely  fallen  off,  owing  to  the  importation  of  foreign  wool,  which  has 
caused  a  reduction  in  the  price  of  the  home  product.  The  rais- 
ing of  swine,  as  already  mentioned,  has  been  greatly  increased  by 
the  beet  sugar  industry. 

Mining  and  the  manufacturing  industries  dependent  thereon,  are 
mostly  centered  in  the  coal  and  iron  districts.  A  considerable 
amount  of  copper,  silver,  lead,  and  zinc  are  mined  in  the  Harz 
region  and  in  Silesia.  Germany  furnishes  nearly  one-half  of  the 
European  silver  output,  the  metal  being  obtained  chiefly  from  sil- 
ver-lead ores.1  German  miners  are  far  advanced  in  methods  of 
extracting  metals  from  ore  and  in  general  mining  operations.  Ger- 
many leads  every  other  country  on  the  continent  in  the  production 
of  coal  and  iron,  and  stands  third  in  the  coal-producing  countries 
of  the  world,  being  exceeded  only  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  The  chief  coal  fields  (mostly  associated  with,  iron  ore)  are 
the  Rhur  Valley  in  Westphalia,  the  Saar  coal  basin  in  Lorraine,  the 
coal  fields  of  Saxony  at  the  base  of  the  Erzgebirge,  the  coal  basins 
in  upper  and  lower  Silesia,  and  the  lignite  area  in  Saxony  and 

1  Kirchhoff,  The  International  Geography,  p.  282. 


The  German  Empire  283 

Thuringia.  Although  iron  ores  of  excellent  quality  are  found  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  Empire,  iron  is  extensively  worked  only 
when  found  with  coal.  Beneath  the  surface  of  the  North  German 
Plain  are  immense  deposits  of  rock  salt  associated  with  potassium 
salts,  which  latter  are  of  great  value  in  various  chemical  and  industrial 
processes. 

Forestry  has  reached  a  very  high  state  of  development  in  Ger- 
many, and  the  returns  from  forest  productions  yield  an  important 
revenue.  Along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas,  fisheries  are 
carried  on  to  some  extent.  In  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  country, 
where  agriculture  is  not  profitable,  many  of  the  people  are  still 
engaged  in  various  primitive  home  industries,  as  weaving  and  spin- 
ning, wood  carving,  brewing,  lace  work,  etc. ;  but  these  hand  manu- 
factures are  giving  way  before  the  modern  industrial  development. 

180.  Manufacturing  and  Commercial  Centers.  —  Essen,  in  the  Rhur 
coal  basin,  is  the  site  of  the  great  Krupp  manufacturing  plant,  where 
the  large  pieces  of  ordnance  are  cast  for  use  throughout  the  world. 
Some  twenty  miles  south  of  this  are  Solingen  and  Remscheid,  noted 
for  their  cutlery  and  other  steel  work.  In  the  same  district  are  Barmen, 
Elberfeld,  and  other  towns,  engaged  in  the  textile  manufactures, 
especially  in  woolen  and  silk  goods.  On  the  western  side  of  the 
Rhine  is  Krefeld,  next  to  Lyons,  the  most  noted  center  of  silk  and 
velvet  manufacture  in  Europe.  The  centering  of  this  industry  here 
is  due  largely  to  the  character  of  the  water,  which  aids  in  the  dye- 
ing process.1  Cotton  manufacture  has  reached  a  remarkable  de- 
velopment in  the  Alsace-Lorraine  district,  where  Kolmer,  Gebweiler, 
and  Mulhausen  are  noted  centers.  Other  textile  industries  are 
also  carried  on  in  towns  of  this  region,  which  though  not  situated  on 
any  coal  field  are  near  enough  for  easy  transportation,  and  besides 
have  the  advantage  of  water  power  from  the  tributary  streams 
"which  flow  into  the  Middle  Rhine  from  the  Vosges  Mountains. 
Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle)  is  a  center  of  woolen  manufacture  on 

1  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  p.  251. 


284  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

the  edge  of  the  Belgian  coal  and  iron  field.  In  the  Saxony  coal 
fields,  Chemnitz  is  the  great  center  of  textile  industry,  and  in  Silesia 
Gorlitz,  Breslau,  and  Liegnitz  are  noted  for  their  woolen  manufac- 
tures. In  Wurtemburg,  Stuttgart  is  the  chief  center  of  hosiery 
manufacture. 

Many  towns  in  Germany  are  famous  for  their  chemical  manu- 
factures :  Dresden,  for  fine  porcelain  and  chinaware,  and  Munich, 
for  the  manufacture  of  scientific  and  musical  instruments,  notably 
pianos.  In  the  Black  Forest  region,  clock-making  has  reached 
a  high  state  of  perfection. 

Aside  from  distinctively  manufacturing  and  mining  centers,  the 
chief  commercial  cities  of  Germany  are  the  seaports,  the  river  ports, 
and  the  cities  located  on  through  railway  lines.  Hamburg,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe  River  (with  the  adjoining  city  of  Altona)  and 
Cuxhaven  as  the  outport,  is  by  far  the  largest  and  most  impor- 
tant seaport  of  the  continent,  having  gained  this  position  by  its  favor- 
able location  in  relation  to  the  Elbe  and  its  tributaries  (the  Havel 
and  the  Spree)  as  natural  highways  of  communication  with  the  in- 
terior. Bremen  and  its  outport  Bremerhaven  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Weser,  is  also  a  notable  North  Sea  port  Stettin,  on  the  Oder,  and 
Danzig,  Konigsberg,  and  Memel  are  Baltic  ports,  which  are  under 
the  disadvantage  of  being  closed  by  ice  during  the  winter. 

Many  of  the  interior  towns  of  Germany  owe  their  present  com- 
mercial importance  to  historical  conditions,  which  established  them  as 
capitals  of  originally  independent  states  and  which,  by  the  centering 
of  population,  directed  the  currents  of  trade  to  these  points.  In  sev- 
eral instances,  however,  geographical  conditions  have  also  played 
a  very  important  part  in  the  commercial  development  of  places. 
Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  German  Empire,  has  arisen  largely  through 
historical  influences,  but  its  central  position  in  the  North  German 
Plain,  and  its  location  on  the  Spree,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe,  has 
greatly  added  to  its  commercial  importance.  Munich  has  developed 
into  a  great  railroad  center,  largely  from  its  relation  to  the  traffic 


The  German  Empire  285 

across  the  Alps.  Breslau  was  in  early  times  a  point  of  crossing  of 
the  Oder,  and  currents  of  trade  centered  there.  In  later  times  the 
presence  of  coal  increased  its  importance  as  a  manufacturing  and 
commercial  center.  The  navigability  of  the  Elbe  for  a  long  distance 
inland,  has  given  Dresden  a  commercial  prominence.  Leipzig,  by  its 
geographical  position  on  the  boundary  between  the  North  German 
Plain  and  the  Central  Highlands,  has  long  been  a  strategic  point 
and  a  trade  center,  —  a  point  of  movement  from  the.  higher  to  the 
lower  land,  and  vice  versa.  It  stands  second  to  Berlin  in  its  impor- 
tance in  the  inland  trade,  and  has  become  the  chief  book-publishing 
center  of  the  Empire.1 

181.  Internal  Communications.  —  The  system  of  internal  commu- 
nication in  Germany  has  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection  through 
the  building  of  canals  and  railways,  added  to  the  natural  advantages 
offered  by  the  navigable  rivers.  This  has  unified  the  industrial  life 
and  made  Germany  one  vast  workshop.  The  original  thrift  of  the 
German,  and  the  steady-going  habits  of  the  nation  as  a  whole,  so  well 
illustrated  in  the  primitive  home  industries,  have  been  potent  factors 
in  the  modern  industrial  and  commercial  expansion  of  Germany. 
Germany's  progress  has  come  through  the  development  of  natural 
resources  and  furnishing  the  means  of  communication.  These  are 
the  potential  agencies  in  any  country,  and  the  Germans  possess, 
to  a  marked  degree,  the  intelligence  and  perseverance  to  convert 
these  powers  into  active  working  forces. 

Upwards  of  32,000  miles  of  railroad  are  in  operation  in  Germany, 
with  a  yearly  carrying  trade  of  over  350,000,000  tons  (metric).  The 
railway  system  of  Germany  is  second  only  to  that  of  the  United  States 
in  equipment  and  general  importance.  Germany  has  nearly  6000 
miles  of  navigable  rivers  for  vessels  of  deep  draught,  upwards  of  1000 
miles  of  canalized  rivers,  and  more  than  1000  miles  of  canals  which 
-connect  the  various  river  basins.  The  entire  territory  presents  a  vast 
network  of  navigable  waterways,  which,  coupled  with  the  railway 
1  See  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  254-258. 


286 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


system,  affords  a  ready  means  of  transportation  to  every  part  of  the 
Empire.  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Ship  Canal,  cut  sixty-one  miles  across 
the  peninsula  of  Schleswig-Holstein  from  Kiel  Bay  to  the  Elbe 
estuary,  has  had  a  very  marked  effect  in  stimulating  trade  between 
the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea  ports.  Outside  nations  like  Russia  also 
share  advantages  of  this  canal. 

182.    Trade.  —  The  commerce   of  Germany  is   supervised   by  a 
Customs  League  (Zollverein)  which  embraces  practically  all  the  states 

of  the  Empire.  The  foreign 
trade  is  carried* on  with  all 
parts  of  the  world,  but  Great 
Britain  has  the  largest  share 
of  this,  followed  in  order  by 
the  United  States,  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  Russia.  Ger- 
many gets  a  considerable 
amount  of  raw  cotton  from 
the  United  States,  though 
South  American  cotton  is  also 
used  in  German  manufactures. 
COMBINED  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  GER-  Austria- Hungary  and  Russia 

are  important  sources  of  grain 
supply,  as  the  home  produc- 
tion of  food-stuffs  is  insufficient.  Like  Great  Britain,  Germany  is 
a  typical  industrial  country,  its  imports  being  mainly  raw  materials 
and  food-stuffs  and  its  exports  mostly  manufactured  goods.  Of  food- 
stuffs over  28  per  cent  is  imported,  against  about  9  per  cent  of  special 
food  products  exported.  Live  stock  is  not  exported,  and  a  consider- 
able amount  is  imported.  The  total  external  trade  of  Germany  is 
over  $2,000,000,000  yearly,  representing  nearly  $40  per  head  of 
population  (1901).  Next  to  that  of  Great  Britain  the  German 
merchant  marine  is  the  largest  afloat,  having  nearly  4000  vessels 
(steam  and  sail)  with  a  net  tonnage  of  more  than  two  million  tons. 


GREAT  BRITAIN 

1,755,000,000 

=  16* 

NORTH  & 
CEN.  AMERICA 

1,562,000,000 

-14>a* 

AUSTRIA  HUNGARY 

1,235,000,000 

-  1  1V2* 

RUSSIA 

1,089,000,000 

=  10* 

S.AMERICA  &  W.INDIES 

735,000,000 

-    7* 

NETHERLANDS 

611,000,000 

-   5%# 

FRANCE 

593,000,000 

—   bVi% 

BELGIUM 

474,000,000 

-  v/t% 

SWITZERLAND 

462,000,000 

—    4'/4* 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

2,279,000,000 

-Mf 

MANY  (1900),  IN  MILLIONS  OF  MARKS 
Total,  10,795  >ooo  ,000  Marks 


The  German  Empire  287 

Germany  is  next  to  Great  Britain  the  most  important  country 
doing  business  with  the  United  States,  buying  largely  of  food-stuffs 
and  raw  materials  for  manufacture.  Its  share  in  the  export  trade 
of  the  United  States  amounts  to  some  12  per  cent  of  the  whole, 
while  the  imports  from  Germany  into  this  country  amount  to  about 
n  per  cent  of  the  entire  import  trade  (1901). 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

207.  From  the  physical  features  of  Germany,  show  why  there  developed  several 
small  states. 

208.  Compare  the  agricultural  products  of  Germany  with  those  of  the  United 
States. 

209.  What  are  the  termini  of  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  and  what  is  its  com- 
mercial importance  ? 

210.  Contrast  the  characteristics  of  German  business  men  with  the  traits  of 
English  and  American  business  men. 

211.  Write  an  essay  on  The  Development  of  Manufactures  and  Trade  in  Ger- 
many since  1870,  also  one  on  Germany's  Consular  and  Colonial  System.     (British 
Consular  Report  noted  below.) 

212.  What  have  schools  and  universities  had  to  do  with  the  progress  noted  in 
the  preceding  topic  ? 

213.  Investigate  the  introduction  of  the  beet  sugar  industry  into  Germany. 

Books  to  be  Consulted  —  Miscellaneous  Series 

*Kirchhoff,  The  German  Empire,  The  International  Geography,  Chapter  XVII. 

** Germany.    British  Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports,  No.  490.    London;  1899. 

**Pogson,  Germany  and  its  Trade.     New  York  and  London;    1902. 

Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapter  VII.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 

*Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  246—258. 

*Arndt,  Germany  in  International  Commerce,  International  Monthly,  May  1902. 

**  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States.     Bureau  of  Foreign  Commerce. 

*  The  Statesman's  Yearbook, 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

SWITZERLAND   AND   ITALY 

183.  Industrial  Switzerland.  —  The  Republic  of  Switzerland  lies 
wholly  within  the  Alpine  Highland,  covering  an  area  of  15,976  square 
miles,  with  an  average  density  of  population  of  about  207  to  the 
square  mile.     Though  scarcely  twice  the  area  of  New  Jersey,  with 
practically  no  coal  and  iron  within  its  limits,  and  for  the  most  part 
with  a  thin,  barren  soil,  the  country  presents  a  remarkable  picture 
of  industrial  development.     Two  features  of  environment  lie  at  the 
foundation  of  Switzerland's  industrial  life  —  lack  of  home-grown  food- 
stuffs and  raw  material,  and   the  presence  of  an  abundant  water 
power.     The  latter  was  early  taken  advantage  of,  and  numerous  in- 
dustries were  developed.     Work  in  Switzerland  was  specialized  to  a 
remarkable  extent  by  division  of  labor.     The  water  power  is  further 
turned  to  account  in  the  generation  of  electricity  for  various  purposes. 
Switzerland  lies  in  the  gateway  of  traffic  between  the  populous  centers 
of  Middle  Europe  and  the  productive  lands  of  Italy  and  the  Medi- 
terranean  region.     The   piercing  of  the  Alps   by  several   tunnels, 
and   the    passage   of  the    railroads    through    Swiss   territory,   have 
stimulated  the  industries  of  the  country  to  a  marked  degree.     Raw 
materials  are  now  brought  in  with  comparative  ease  as  against  the 
old  laborious  and  costly  method  of  wagon  transportation  over  the 
Alpine  passes. 

184.  Resources   and    Manufactures.  —  Notwithstanding   the  diffi- 
culty under  which  agriculture  is  pursued  because  of  the  disadvantages 
of  soil  and  climate,  certain  crops  are  raised,  though  they  are  insuffi- 
cient to  meet  the  demands  of  home  consumption.     Wheat  is  grown 

288 


Switzerland  and  Italy  289 

in  the  Alpine  valleys  as  high  as  2500  feet,  and  wine  grapes  are  raised 
on  the  lower  slopes ;  but  the  chief  agricultural  wealth  of  Switzerland 
is  in  its  pastures.  The  manufacture  of  cheese  and  condensed  milk 
are  characteristic  Swiss  industries,  and  these  commodities  form  the 
leading  agricultural  exports.  Among  the  more  prominent  occupa- 
tions are  cotton  and  silk  weaving,  the  manufacture  of  embroideries, 
buttons,  various  trimmings,  and  watch  making.  Zurich  and  Basel  are 
the  centers  of  the  silk  industry,  the  raw  material  coming  in  from  Italy. 
Watch  making  is  carried  on  largely  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alpine  Jura, 
where  the  soil  is  poor ;  a  comparatively  large  portion  of  the  people 
turn  their  attention  to  the  making  of  different  parts,  each  specializing 
along  certain  lines  of  work.  The  cost  of  manufacture  is  thus  greatly 
reduced,  and  Swiss  hand-made  watches  have  competed  successfully 
with  the  machine-made  watches  of  other  countries. 

185.  Trade.  —  Switzerland  is  forced  to  send  out  her  manufactures 
to  obtain   food-stuffs   and  raw  materials.      As  a  consequence,  the 
Republic   maintains  an  active  trade  with  the  outside  world.     Ger- 
many holds  the  largest  share  of  Swiss  trade,   both  in  exports  and 
imports.      France  is  second  on  the  import  list,  while  Great  Britain  is 
second  in  the  value  of  the  export  trade.     Of  the  total  imports  of  the 
United  States  less  than  two  per  cent  are  of  Swiss  origin;  the  exports 
of  the  United  States  to  Switzerland  are  inconsiderable. 

186.  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Resources  of  Italy.  —  The  area 
of  Italy  is  less  than  half  that  of  the  state  of  Texas,  and  the  average 
density  of  population  is  upwards  of  293  to  the  square  mile.     The 
northern  portion  embraces  the  southern  ranges  of  the  Alps,  while 
the  peninsular  portion  is  formed  by  the  ranges  of  the  Apennines  and 
their  coastal  forelands.     The  Alps  and  the  Apennines  are  separated 
from  each  other  (except  in  a  narrow  mountainous  neck  at  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa)  by  the  deep,  alluvial  Plain  of  Lombardy,  which 
^extends  westward  from  the  Adriatic  shores  to  beyond  the  locality  of 
Turin.    At  the  southwestern  end  of  the  peninsula,  and  separated  from 
it  by  the  narrow  Strait   of  Messina,  is   the   mountainous  island  of 


290  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Sicily,  while  to  the  west  lie  the  two  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica, 
the  latter  of  which  belongs  to  France.  The  Plain  of  Lombardy  lies 
in  the  basin  of  the  Po,  and  is  one  of  the  most  densely  populated 
portions  of  the  Kingdom. 

Italy  occupies  a  unique  position  among  European  countries  in 
its  relations  to  the  Mediterranean  trade,  and  to  the  commerce  of 
the  Suez  Canal.  The  peninsula  has  a  shore  line  that  fronts  east, 
west,  and  south.  With  such  an  extensive  coast  line  and  the  advan- 
tages presented  by  foreign  traffic,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
people  naturally  follow  the  sea.  Venice,  near  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic,  was  once  the  commercial  center  of  the  world,  and  is  to-day 
a  seaport  of  note.1 

The  climate  is  of  the  Mediterranean  type,  with  hot  and  dry 
summers ;  the  rainfall  is  variable,  being  influenced  locally  by  the 
position  of  mountain  ranges  and  the  prevailing  winds.  Irrigation  is 
extensively  practiced,  the  abundant  water  supply  of  the  numerous 
'mountain  streams  being  utilized  for  this  purpose. 

Italy  is  a  remarkably  productive  region,  as  the  climate  and  soil 
support  a  great  variety  of  growth,  from  tropical  to  temperate  forms ; 
but  agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state,  owing  to  primitive  methods. 
The  population,  however,  depends  mainly  upon  agricultural  resources. 
Wheat  is  the  chief  cereal  crop ;  the  hard-grained  wheat  of  Apulia, 
in  the  southeastern  part,  furnishes  the  material  out  of  which  the 
characteristic  Italian  food — macaroni  —  is  made.  Next  to  wheat, 
Indian  com  is  the  most  important  grain  crop.  Quantities  of  hard 
wheat  are  now  imported  from  India  to  meet  the  deficiency  caused 
by  the  poor  methods  generally  practiced  in  the  country.  In  the 
Plain  of  Lombardy,  rice  is  grown  extensively  in  the  irrigated  fields, 
and  in  all  areas  under  irrigation  grass  and  forage  crops  grow  in 
remarkable  luxuriance.  Cattle  raising  and  dairying  are  relatively 
important  industries  ;  the  manufactures  of  cheese  form  a  consider- 
able item  of  export.  Other  important  Italian  exports  are  poultry  and 

1  Fischer,  The  International  Geography,  pp.  353-354. 


Switzerland  and  Italy  291 

eggs.  Sheep  are  raised  in  some  districts,  the  wool  of  Apulia  being 
especially  noted.  Oranges,  figs,  almonds,  and  olives  are  grown  in 
great  abundance  ;  viniculture  and  wine- making  are  also  characteristic 
Italian  occupations,  though  the  wine  is  of  inferior  quality.  Italy  pro- 
duces more  olive  oil  than  any  other  country  in  the  world,  and  though 
the  home  consumption  is  very  large,  a  considerable  export  goes  to 
other  countries,  particularly  to  France.  The  chief  fiber  crops  are  flax 
and  hemp.  Silk  culture  is  extensively  carried  on,  especially  in  the 
northern  portion,  and  the  reeling  of  silk  is  an  Italian  industry  of  con- 
siderable importance.  Silk,  raw  and  "  thrown,"  i.e.  made  into  yarn, 
is  by  far  the  most  valuable  single  item  of  Italian  export.  Another 
industry  of  commercial  importance  is  the  plaiting  of  straw ;  the  Leg- 
horn product  of  this  industry  is  especially  famous. 

187.  Manufacture  and  Commerce.  —  Most  of  the  Italian  textile  in- 
dustries are  of  the  domestic  type,  and  they  are  carried  on  locally 
throughout  the  country,  yet  certain  sections  are  distinguished  by  the 
development  of  the  modern  factory  and  the  centering  of  industries  at 
special  points.  A  factor  in  the  industrial  life  of  Italy  is  the  cheap- 
ness of  labor,  which  enables  the  country  to  carry  on  certain  manu- 
factures to  advantage.  Italy  lacks  fuel ;  beds  of  lignite  form  the  only 
material  of  this  nature.  The  water  power  of  the  mountain  streams, 
however,  is  made  available  in  many  places,  and  various  textile  indus- 
tries have  developed  in  the  valleys  of  the  Piedmont.  Iron  ore  of 
good  quality  is  abundant,  and  under  government  encouragement 
the  iron  industry  has  of  late  been  developed  in  various  sections.1 
Some  iron  ore  is  shipped  to  the  United  States.  The  most  im- 
portant mineral  product  exported  from  Italy  is  sulphur,  obtained 
chiefly  from  Sicily,  where  it  occurs  as  a  volcanic  deposit.  Boracic 
acid  is  also  prepared  in  the  volcanic  districts.  Italy  is  famous  for  its 
statuary  marbles,  particularly  those  quarried  at  Carrara  and  Massa. 
Lead  and  zinc  are  also  of  some  commercial  importance.  A  feature 
of  Italian  industry  is  the  production  of  artistic  wood  work,  earthen- 

1  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  p.  294. 


292 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


ware,  tiles,  coral,  cameos,  mosaics,  leather,  alabaster,  etc.,  for  all  of 
which  the  city  of  Florence  is  a  noted  center. 

Notwithstanding  Italy's  extensive  seacoast  and  excellent  harbors, 
most  of  the  export  trade  is  carried  on  by  rail.  Since  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Alpine  tunnels,  the  nature  of  the  material  handled 
(oil,  eggs,  wine,  etc.,  produced  in  the  northern  provinces)  makes 
it  cheaper  and  easier  to  ship  overland  than  to  transship  the  goods 
both  at  home  and  in  foreign  ports. 

Venice  and  Genoa  are  the  two  most  important  seaports  of  the 
Kingdom,  the  former  doing  the  largest  export  trade  to  the 

Mediterranean,  while  Genoa 
stands  first  in  the  value  of 
imports  from  its  nearness  to 
other  European  ports.  The 
export  trade  from  Genoa  is 
comparatively  small.  Naples 
has  a  fine  harbor  and  com- 


UNITED  KINGDOM 

513 

=  18* 

GERMANY 

425 

=  15* 

UNITED  STATES  &.  CAN. 

350 

-12* 

FRANCE 

336 

-12* 

AUSTRIA 

336 

-12* 

SWITZERLAND 

264 

=  10* 

RUSSIA 

145 

=      5* 

ARGENTINA 

103 

-      4-4 

BRITISH  ASIA 

91 

-       3* 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

254 

=      9* 

mands  a  large  import  trade ; 
the  chief  exports  from  Naples 
are  raw  materials  (flax  and 
hemp),  live  stock,  etc.  Pa- 
lermo, Messina,  and  Catania 
are  Sicilian  ports,  prominent 
COMMERCE  OF  ITALY  (,900),  APPROXIMATED  shipment  of  oranges, 

IN  MILLIONS  OF  LIRE 

wines,  and  sulphur.     Brindisi, 

on  the  Adriatic,  is  the  port  of  transshipment  for  the  Indian  mail. 
Turin  is  the  Italian  terminus  of  the  Mont  Cenis  Railroad.  Milan  is 
the  most  important  inland  trade  center  of  northern  Italy.  It  is 
situated  in  the  fertile  Plain  of  Lombardy,  and  was  the  focal  point 
of  the  earlier  trans-Alpine  roads  and  is  now  a  terminus  of  the  St. 
Gotthard  Railroad.  A  canal  is  projected  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber  in  order  to  make  Rome  a  seaport. 

Italy  is  mainly  an  exporter  of  raw  materials,  little  if  any  manu- 


Switzerland  and  Italy  293 

factured  goods  (except  those  of  an  artistic  nature)  being  sent  out 
of  the  country.  It  thus  holds  a  somewhat  unique  position.  It 
is  an  important  source  of  supply  for  the  Swiss  silk  industry.  Its 
largest  imports  are  wheat,  raw  cotton,  and  coal.  The  largest  import 
trade  is  from  Great  Britain,  the  United  States  being  second,  Germany 
third,  and  France  fourth.  The  greatest  value  of  exports  goes  to 
Germany,  Switzerland  being  second  (silk),  and  France  third,  followed 
by  Great  Britain  and  United  States  (1901).  The  total  of  United 
States'  trade  to  Italy  is  small,  amounting  to  little  more  than  two  per 
cent  of  the  whole  trade  of  this  country.  In  the  diagram  opposite  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  are  taken  together. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

214.  What  language  is  spoken  in  Geneva  ?     What  in  Zurich  ?     What  are  the 
official  languages  of  Switzerland  ? 

215.  Mention  the  principal  "Gates  of  Italy."     What  are  the  railroads  passing 
through  them  ? 

216.  What  are  the  climatic  conditions  on  the  Mediterranean  that  make  it  so 
well  suited  to  the  production  of  the  olive  ? 

217.  What  uses  does  the  olive  serve  in  the  economy  of  Mediterranean  peoples  ? 

218.  With  a  map,  show  the  peculiar  appropriateness  of  the  following :  "  Greece 
looks  toward  the  rising  and  Italy  toward  the  setting  sun." 

219.  Note  the  diversity  of  natural  features  in  Italy  and  see  how  this  is  reflected 
in  the  products. 

220.  A  reported  difficulty  in  the  securing  of  Mediterranean  trade  is  to  get  a 
return  cargo.     Discuss  this. 

221.  Trace  the  parallel  of  Rome  across  the  United  States.     What  dissimilari- 
ties in  the  regions  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**Chaix,  Switzerland,  Chapter  XVI,  Fischer,  Italy  and  Malta,  Chapter  XX, 

The  International  Geography. 
Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapters  III  and  VIII.     Macmillan's  Geographical 

Series. 

*Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography.     London  and  New  York. 
**  The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 
* Foreign  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

188.  Physical  Features.  —  Two  distinct  physical  areas  are  united 
under  the  name  of  Austria- Hungary.     These  correspond  fairly  to  the 
divisions  of  the   compound  name.     Each  is,  moreover,  a  separate 
political  unit,  but  under  a  single  Monarchy.      The  boundaries  of  the 
Monarchy  embrace  for  the  larger  part,  the  basin  of  the  Middle  Danube, 
and  the  entire  area  presents  a  great  variety  of  surface  features.     The 
western  or  Austrian   portion,  is  largely  mountainous,  including   the 
Tyrol,   the  rugged  region  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  the   ranges  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  the  Plateaus  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia, 
the    Carpathian   ranges    to    the   north   and    east,    and   the   Dinaric 
Mountains    along    the    narrow    Adriatic    strip.       The    eastern    or 
Hungarian  portion,   consists  for  the   most  part,   of  a  vast  expanse 
of   grass-covered    plains    or    steppes,   which    belong   in    the    same 
physical  area  with  the  plains  of  Russia  and  western  Asia. 

The  climate  of  the  two  areas  is  in  contrast,  that  of  Hungary 
being  decidedly  continental  in  character  with  great  yearly  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold,  while  the  Austrian  section  has  the  more 
oceanic  climate  of  western  Europe  with  a  larger  rainfall. 

189.  Resources  and  Industries.  —  As  a  result  of  this  difference 
in  physical  conditions,  the  two  sections  of  the  kingdom  present  a 
decided   contrast  in  their  resources  and  in  the  resulting  activities 
of  the   population.      Austria,   from  its   mountainous   nature,  holds 
a   vast    store    of    mineral   wealth    which    has   given    rise    to    great 
manufacturing  industries.       Hungary,  on    the   other   hand,  is   emi- 
nently an  agricultural  region,  its  extensive  plains  being  given  over 
to  crop  growing  and  stock  raising. 

294 


A  ustria-Hungary  295 

The  area  of  the  Austrian  Empire  is  upwards  of  115,000  square 
miles,  with  an  average  density  of  226  persons  to  the  square  mile. 
The  Kingdom  of  Hungary  has  an  area  of  about  125,000  square  miles, 
with  an  average  density  of  153  per  square  mile.  The  difference  in 
the  density  of  population  in  the  two  sections  is  the  difference  be- 
tween a  purely  agricultural  region  and  one  of  manufactures.  As  in 
the  neighboring  German  states,  rye  and  oats  form  the  principal  grain 
crops  of  Austria,  while  on  the  Hungarian  plains,  wheat  and  maize  are 
the  chief  crops.  Hungarian  wheat  enters  commerce  largely  in  the 
form  of  flour  of  a  high  quality,  milling  methods  being  far  advanced ; 
the  dryness  of  the  climate  is  favorable  to  the  manufacturing  of 
flour.  Agriculture  in  Hungary  has  made  rapid  strides  in  the  use  of 
machinery,  fertilizers,  etc.,  with  a  resulting  increase  in  the  yield  per 
acre.  The  sugar  beet  is  grown,  particularly  in  northern  Bohemia.  In 
the  same  region  hops  are  also  grown.  The  production  of  silk  and  wine 
is  carried  on  in  western  Hungary,  and  in  the  Alpine  provinces  of  Austria. 

Nearly  28  per  cent  of  the  area  of  Hungary  and  over  34  per  cent 
of  the  area  of  Austria  are  forest-covered,  the  forests  yielding  a  variety 
of  valuable  timber.  Over  23  per  cent  of  Hungary  is  in  meadow  and 
pasture  land,  stock  raising  being  an  important  feature  of  the  country's 
economy.  Cattle  are  also  largely  raised  in  the  Alpine  provinces  of 
Austria. 

Coal  and  iron  are  the  most  important  mineral  deposits,  but  though 
abundant,  are  not  associated  together ;  coal  is  found  chiefly  in 
Bohemia  and  Moravia  (contiguous  to  the  Silesian  and  Saxony  coal 
fields  of  Germany),  while  iron  occurs  in  the  Alpine  districts.  In  the 
latter  region  lignite  is  found.  Rich  salt  deposits  are  mined  in  the 
Alpine  provinces,  in  western  Galicia,  and  also  in  the  Hungarian 
province  of  Transylvania.  Austria-Hungary  is  prominent  among 
European  countries  as  a  gold  producer ;  silver  and  mercury  (quick- 
» silver)  also  occur  in  deposits  of  some  value. 

190.  Manufacturing  Centers  and  Internal  Communications. — The 
chief  centers  of  manufacture  are  the  coal  areas  in  Bohemia,  Moravia, 


296 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


and  the  Austrian  province  of  Silesia.  Various  textiles,  as  woolen, 
linen,  cotton,  and  jute  fabrics,  are  manufactured  here.  Iron  and  steel 
making  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  iron-ore  districts.  Glass  making 
is  a  characteristic  Bohemian  industry  of  considerable  antiquity  and 
prominence.  The  glass  industry  became  prominent  because  the 
potash  of  the  forests  of  Bohemia  and  the  silica  of  the  soil  were  con- 
tiguous to  the  coal  fields.  Porcelain  ware  is  also  made  at  places 

where  kaolin  occurs  (Karls- 
bad, etc.1).  Sugar  refining 
and  brewing  ^are  prominent 
industries  of  Bohemia. 

Vienna,  the  capital  of  the 
Monarchy,  is  the  most  im- 
portant industrial  and  com- 
mercial center.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Danube,  in  Lower 
Austria,  at  a  point  where 
natural  features  have  made 
it  a  center  of  European  traffic. 
The  series  of  gaps  between 
the  Carpathian  and  Alpine 
ranges,  where  the  Danube 
enters  the  Plain  of  Hungary 
(the  Hungarian  Gate),  lie  just  to  the  east.  North  of  it  the  Moravian 
Gap  opens  a  way  to  the  great  European  Plain.  The  Southern  Rail- 
way carries  trade  over  the  Semmering  Pass  into  Italy.  Through  the 
narrow  depression  between  the  Alps  and  the  Plateau  of  Bohemia, 
known  as  the  Austrian  Gap,  there  is  a  trade  route  into  southern 
Germany.  All  together,  Vienna  stands  at  the  crossing  of  trade 
routes  and  owes  its  importance  as  one  of  the  first  cities  of  Europe, 
largely  to  this  fact.2 


GERMANY 

1672 

-     47.4* 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

352 

-    i.o* 

ITALY 

261 

=-    7.4* 

UNITES  STATES 

191 

=    5.4* 

RUSSIA 

161 

—      4.5<g 

BRITISH  INDIES 

130 

-      4     < 

SWITZERLAND 

125 

FRANCE 

122 

-       3.4£ 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

511 

=    14.4* 

COMBINED    IMPORTS    AND     EXPORTS    OF 
AUSTRIA-  HUNGARY     ( 1 900) ,     APPROXI  - 
MATED    IN    MILLIONS   OF    CROWNS 
Total,  3,525,000,000  Crowns 


1  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  267-268. 

2  Penck,  The  International  Geography,  pp.  309-310. 


CENTRAL  EUROPE. 


Cities  with  over  1,000,000  :  ,  . 
Cities  with  200,000  to  1,000,000 :  .  ,  .  Rome 
Cities  with  100,000  to  200,000  - ....  Venice 

Places: .  Larissa 

Capitals  with  less  than  JOO,COO  :  .  Belgrade 

Capitals  of  Countries:  a     Other  Places.:  • 


SlClfLVl  \tft.Etna 


298  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

The  twin  cities  of  Budapest,  on  both  banks  of  the  Danube,  are 
the  center  of  a  great  flour-milling  district.  Prague,  the  capital  of 
Bohemia,  is  in  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  districts  of  the  King- 
dom. It  is  situated  on  the  Moldau,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe,  at  the  head 
of  navigation,  and  is  thus  in  communication  with  the  port  of  Ham- 
burg. Just  where  the  Danube  leaves  the  Kingdom  of  Hungary  to 
enter  Rumania,  it  passes  close  to  the  southwestern  bend  of  the  Carpa- 
thians, known  as  the  Transylvanian  Alps,  in  a  series  of  rapids  —  the 
famous  Iron  Gates  —  which  long  obstructed  navigation,  but  more 
recently  they  have  been  passed  by  canals. 

191.  Commerce.  —  Austria- Hungary  has  but  two  seaports  of  note, — 
Trieste  and  Fiume  on  the  Adriatic.  These  handle  together  scarcely 
a  third  of  the  entire  trade  of  the  Empire,  the  bulk  of  it  going  by  rail, 
river,  and  canal  to  the  adjoining  countries.  Sugar,  eggs,  wood,  and 
woodwork  are  among  the  exports  of  greatest  value,  while  cotton, 
wool,  coal,  and  silk  are  among  the  noteworthy  items  of  import.  The 
largest  trade  of  the  Empire  is  with  Germany,  followed  by  Great 
Britain  and  Italy. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS   AND  TOPICS 

222.  With  what  other  European  country  are  both  the  people  and  the  indus- 
tries of  Austria  most  closely  related  ? 

223.  Make  a  statement  of  the  commercial  advantages  enjoyed  by  Vienna. 

224.  Show  how  natural  features  have  determined  the  manufactures  of  Bohemia. 

225.  Find  the  place  of  Austria-Hungary  in  the  world's  supply  of  timber. 

226.  Contrast  the  industries  of  Austria  and  Hungary.     What  is  the  physical 
basis  of  this  contrast  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*  The  Austro- Hungarian  Monarchy.       The  International  Geography,   Chapter 

XVII. 

Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapter  IX.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 
*Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  262-269. 
**The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE  DANUBE  COUNTRIES  AND  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA 

192.  Rumania.  — The  Carpathian  Mountains  sweep  in  a  broad  arc 
along  the  northern  border  of  Hungary  and  bending  southward,  then 
westward  (the  Transylvanian  Alps),  and  again  southward,  enter  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  beyond  the  "Iron  Gates"  of  the  Danube.  They 
likewise  form  the  Hungarian  frontier  on  the  east.  Extending  east- 
ward from  the  Transylvanian  Alps  to  the  Black  Sea  and  from  the 
borders  of  Russia  on  the  north  to  the  Balkan  Mountains  on  the  south, 
is  the  Kingdom  of  Rumania,  covering  an  area  of  some  50,000  square 
miles.  It  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  Lower  Danube  from  the  point 
where  the  river  breaks  through  the  Carpathian  wall  in  the  rapids  of 
the  "  Iron  Gates  "  to  its  delta  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  eastern  slopes  of  the  Carpathians  are  wooded  and  pass  into  the 
Rumanian  Plain,  a  steppe  covered  by  the  rich  "  black  earth,"  fertile 
and  similar  in  nature  to  the  soil  of  southern  Russia.  In  fact,  the 
Rumanian  Plain  is  a  southward  continuation  of  the  steppe  region 
and  is  of  the  same  aspect  and  climate.  Here,  as  in  Russia,  the  annual 
extremes  of  temperature  are  very  great. 

Rumania  is  one  of  the  chief  grain-producing  countries  of  the  world. 
Wheat  and  corn  are  extensively  grown  on  the  black  earth  lands  of 
the  plains.  As  a  corn  growing  country  it  stands  next  to  the  United 
States;  the  production  of  corn  in  1900  amounted  to  upwards  of 
80,000,000  bushels.  Of  the  entire  population,  70  per  cent  are 
engaged  in  agriculture.  Other  crops  are  sugar  beets,  colza,  flax, 
hemp,  tobacco,  fruits,  and  wine.  Stock  raising  is  carried  on  in  the 
higher  elevations.  Timber  is  a  valuable  commodity  on  the  slopes  of 

299 


3OO  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

the  mountains ;  there  is  also  much  mineral  wealth  in  the  mountain 
districts.  Coal  and  petroleum  are  worked,  and  the  latter  is  ex- 
ported to  some  extent.  Salt  mining  is  also  an  important  industry, 
being  a  state  monopoly.  Various  manufactures  are  carried  on,  not- 
ably paper  making,  sugar  refining,  manufacture  in  woolen  textiles, 
cement,  leather,  wooden  work,  etc. 

The  Danube  is  the  main  highway  of  traffic,  and  the  channels  of  its 
delta  are  kept  free  from  silt  at  a  considerable  expense.  By  interna- 
tional treaty  the  deep-sea  vessels  of  all  nations  are  free  to  navigate  its 
waters.  Several  railroad  lines  traverse  the  country.  The  chief  centers 
of  trade  are  Bukharest,  the  capital,  located  in  the  Wallachian  Plain ; 
Jassy,  in  Moldavia;  Krajova,  Ployeti,  etc.  Galatz  and  Braila  are 
Danube  ports.  Constantsa,  a  port  of  the  Dobrudja  marsh  districts, 
has  an  important  trade  with  Turkey.  The  chief  trade  of  Rumania 
is  in  the  export  of  grain.  A  large  part  goes  to  Belgium,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain.  The  United  States  trade 
with  Rumania  is  very  slight. 

193.  The  Balkan  Peninsula. — The  Balkan  region  is  the  rugged, 
mountainous  peninsula  which  extends  southward  from  the  lower 
Danube  Basin  between  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  seas  on  the  west  and 
the  Black  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Marmora  with  its  narrow  straits,  and  the 
^Egean  Sea  on  the  east.  Its  southward  termination  is  broken  into  a 
group  of  islands  included  within  the  Kingdom  of  Greece.  The  King- 
dom of  Servia  occupies  the  northwestern  portion.  European  Turkey, 
and  its  principality  Bulgaria,  lie  in  the  central  and  eastern  part  of  the 
peninsula.  The  narrow  Dinarc  region  along  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic, 
is  occupied  by  the  Austrian  province  of  Dalmatia,  Bosnia,  and  Herze- 
govina (under  Austrian  dominion),  and  the  small  principality  of 
Montenegro.  A  variety  of  climates  and  productions  characterizes  the 
Balkan  region.  The  central  and  eastern  portions  have  a  decidedly 
continental  climate  with  marked  yearly  extremes.  The  Mediterranean 
climate  dominates  the  y£gean  shores  and  islands,  with  mild  winters 
and  slight  rainfall.  The  rainfall  is  heavy  on  the  Adriatic  side  through- 


The  Danube  Countries  and  Balkan  Peninsula        301 

out  the  year.  The  features  of  vegetation  vary  with  the  climatic 
differences.  Along  the  entire  western  coast  of  the  peninsula  it  is 
essentially  Mediterranean  in  character,  while  in  the  interior  the 
climate  is  similar  to  the  forest  region  of  central  Europe;  on  the 
east  is  a  steppe  region  like  that  of  Asia. 

The  Balkan  Mountains  contain  some  valuable  mineral  deposits, 
among  which  are  coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  etc.,  but  little  if  anything 
has  been  done  in  the  way  of  their  development. 

194.  Servia.  — The  Kingdom  of  Servia  lies  mainly  in  the  basin  of 
the  Morava  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube,  which  affords  one  of  the 
few  natural  highways  of  traffic  into  the  interior  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula.     The  chief  productions  of  the  country  are  agricultural,  maize 
being  the  most  important  crop.     Forage  grass  and  plums  are  also 
grown.     Live  stock  raising  is  an  important  industry  and  numbers  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and   pigs  are  exported,  the  latter   being  fattened  on 

-"mast"  in  the  forests.  Silver-lead -ores,  with  copper,  iron,  and  coal, 
are  worked  to  some  extent.  Belgrade,  the  capital,  and  chief  com- 
mercial center,  is  located  at  the  confluence  of  the  Morava  and  the 
Danube.  The  principal  trade  of  the  country  is  with  Austria- 
Hungary. 

195.  European  Turkey.  —  The  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe  is  very 
backward,  and  the  resources  of  the  country  are  comparatively  unde- 
veloped.     Agriculture  is  little  developed,  and  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries are  mainly  local  in  character.     The  famous  attar  of  roses  is  a 
characteristic  Turkish  production;  the  manufacture  of  carpets  is  a 
leading  industry.      Among  other  articles  produced  and  exported  are 
tobacco,   wine,   wool,  beans,  grain,  fruits,  honey,  and  wax,  besides 
leather  and  metal  manufactures.     Of  the  latter  commodities,  there 
should  be  mentioned  arms  and  saddles.     The  chief  Turkish  port  and 
great  center  for  the  commerce  of  eastern  Europe  is  the  city  of  Con- 
stantinople  on    the  narrow  strait   (Bosporus)   connecting  the  Black 
Sea  with  the  Sea  of  Marmora.     The  city  is  a  center  for  the  trade  of 
a  wide  region  throughout  western  Asia  and  most  of  the  exports  are 


302  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Asiatic  productions.  Mohair  (from  the  fleece  of  the  Angora  goat) 
is  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  export.  Other  special  items  besides 
those  mentioned  above  are  galls,  various  seeds,  yellow  berries,  and 
gum  tragacanth.  The  Turkish  carpet  and  rug  export  from  Constanti- 
nople is  largely  of  Persian  and  Syrian  manufacture.  The  importance 
of  Constantinople  is  due  to  its  location  on  the  southeastern  confines 
of  Europe,  being  thus  in  touch  with  the  trade  of  Asia  Minor  j  it  also 
has  advantages  from  its  commanding  position  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Black  Sea  (the  sea  route  for  the  commerce  of  southern  Russia) .  A 
through  line  of  railroad  connects  Constantinople  with  western 
Europe,  from  Vienna  via  Belgrade,  Nish,  Sofia  (Bulgaria),  and  Adria- 
nople.  At  Nish  (Servia)  a  line  branches  off,  running  south  to  the 
Turkish  port  of  Salonica.  Other  lines  reach  Varna  on  the  Black 
Sea,  via  Bukharest  and  Rustchuk  (Bulgaria)  ;  railroads  also  reach 
Bourgas  (a  Black  Sea  port),  and  Dede-Agach  (a  seaport  on  the 
^Egean). 

196.  Bulgaria. — The  principality  of   Bulgaria,  including  eastern 
Rumelia,  has  an  autonomous  government  but  under  Turkish  suze- 
rainty.    The  country  is   traversed  by  the  Balkan  Mountains  which 
form  a  watershed  between  the  Danube  Basin  on  the  north  and  the 
rivers  flowing  into  the  ^Egean  Sea  on  the  south.     The  soil  of  many 
parts  is  extremely  fertile,  and  wheat,  maize,  rice,  cotton,  fruits  of  dif- 
ferent sorts,  and  wine  grapes  are  largely  cultivated.     The  produc- 
tion of  raw  silk  and  the  growing  of  roses  (for  the  manufacture  of  attar 
of  roses)  are  leading  industries.     Bulgaria  has  made  more  progress  in 
its  outside  trade,  than  have  the  other  Balkan  countries.     Sofia  (capi- 
tal), Philippopolis,  Rustchuk,  Plevna,  etc.,  are  towns  of  some  com- 
mercial importance. 

197.  Greece.  — The  Kingdom  of  Greece  occupies  the  southern  end 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  part  of  the  adjacent  archipelago  of  the 
y^Egean.      The  most  important  agricultural  products  are  figs,  olives, 
currants,  honey  (the  celebrated  honey  of  Hymettus),  wines,  silks,  to- 
bacco, gall  nuts,  etc.     Of  these,  currants  are  by  far  the  most  important 


304  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

item  in  the  export  trade.  Next  to  currants,  various  ores  form  the 
export  of  most  value,  the  deposits  being  worked  comparatively  close 
to  the  sea  and  near  the  points  of  shipment.1  The  principal  Greek 
ports  are  Piraeus  (the  ancient  and  modern  port  of  Athens),  Patras, 
Syra  (Hermopolis),  and  Corfu. 

The  commercial  relations  of  Greece  are  chiefly  with  Great  Britain, 
Russia,  Turkey,  Egypt,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  Germany,  and  Bel- 
gium. The  United  States  holds  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  trade. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

227.  Locate  the  "  Iron  Gates  of  the  Danube,"  and  show  their  influence  on 
commerce. 

228.  Mention  the  advantages  in  situation  enjoyed  by  Constantinople.     What 
is  the  "  Golden  Horn  "  ? 

229.  Notice  the  geographic  relation  of  Greece  to  Europe  and  to  Asia.     Pro- 
fessor Mahaffy  says  the  Greeks  still  talk  of  "  going  to  Europe."     Why  is  this  ? 

230.  Investigate  the  importance  of  insularity  in  Greek  history.     Explain  the 
statement  applied  to  physical  features,  "  Greece  is  the  most  European  of  Euro- 
pean lands." 

231.  Give   an   account   of  the   history  and    commercial   importance   of  the 
Corinthian  Canal.     (Consular  Reports,  June,  1903.) 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**Philippson,  The  Danubian  and  Balkan  States.     The  International  Geography, 

Chapter  XIX. 
Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapters  II  and  XIV.     Macmillan's  Geographical 

Series. 

*  Hogarth,  The  Nearer  East.     New  York;    1902. 
*Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  297-301. 
The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 

l  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography \  p.  299. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 

SCANDINAVIAN    COUNTRIES 

198.  The  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  —  Sweden  and  Norway  occupy 
the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  which  is  a  plateau  of  1000  to  3000  feet 
elevation,  dissected  by  numerous  rivers  into  a  rugged,  mountainous 
land.  The  valleys  of  the  rivers  are  flooded  by  the  sea  for  long  dis- 
tances inland,  forming  the  characteristic  "fjords."  Many  of  the 
rivers  are  not  navigable  for  commercial  purposes  because  of  the  nu- 
merous rapids  which  occur  in  their  courses,  but  in  many  cases  the  fjords 
form  excellent  harbors.  Except  for  the  southeastern  part,  the  elevation 
of  the  land  increases  toward  the  south ;  this  offsets  the  conditions 
of  latitude  and  produces  a  general  uniformity  in  the  vegetation  which 
is  essentially  boreal  in  character.  A  considerable  area  of  level  land 
is  formed  by  the  southern  and  eastern  slopes  of  the  plateau.  In  a 
general  sense,  Norway  occupies  the  higher  and  more  mountainous 
western  portion  of  the  peninsula,  and  Sweden  the  lower  more  plain- 
like  portion  of  the  east  and  south.  The  northern  part  of  the  pen- 
insula lies  within  the  Arctic  circle.  The  climate  along  the  coast 
of  Norway  is  subject  to  a  heavy  rainfall  and  frequent  fogs,  but  it 
is  tempered  by  the  warm  oceanic  influence.  In  the  interior  the 
climate  is  more  severe ;  the  high  valleys  of  Norway  and  a,  large  por- 
tion of  Sweden  are  dominated  by  the  northern  continental  type  of 
climate. 

N  A  considerable  part  of  the  peninsula  is  covered  with  forests  of 
spruce,  fir,  and  pine.  Over  22  per  cent  of  the  area  of  Norway,  and 
nearly  50  per  cent  of  that  of  Sweden,  is  under  forest,  timber  being  the 
most  important  product  of  the  two  countries  and  the  chief  item  of 
•x  305 


306  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

export  (the  largest  European  timber  export  is  from  these  countries). 
Scandinavian  timber  is  especially  valuable  because  of  its  hardness, 
resulting  from  the  short  summers  which  produce  close  annual  rings.1 
In  both  countries  wood  pulp  is  a  prominent  timber  product,  being 
produced  in  large  quantities  and  exported  for  the  manufacture  of 
paper.  The  manufacture  of  matches  is  also  a  very  important  branch 
of  the  timber  industry  in  both  Norway  and  Sweden. 

The  two  countries  are  similar  in  productions  and  industries,  and 
both  are  united  under  the  same  political  rule,  yet  certain  features 
give  to  each  a  distinctive  commercial  prominence. 

199.  Sweden.  —  Upwards  of  8  per  cent  of  the  entire  area  of  Swe- 
den is  under  cultivation,  and  some  3  per  cent  is  natural  meadow 
land.  The  chief  crops  raised  are  oats,  rye,  barley,  and  potatoes,  with 
a  small  portion  of  wheat.  Oats  and  barley  form  a  considerable  item 
of  export.  Stock  raising  is  carried  on,  and  dairying  is  a  very  promi- 
nent industry,  butter  being  one  of  the  principal  exports  of  the  country. 
The  mining  industry  is  extensively  pursued,  especially  in  iron  ore 
and  the  production  of  pig  iron.  Silver-lead  ores,  copper,  zinc,  and 
manganese  are  also  produced.  Coal  is  found  in  some  sections,  but 
is  not  mined  to  any  extent.  Comparatively  little  textile  manufactur- 
ing is  carried  on. 

Stockholm,  the  capital,  commanding  a  harbor  on  the  Baltic,  is  the 
chief  industrial  center.  Gothenburg  and  Halmstad  on  the  Cattegat 
are  prominent  seaports,  and  Malmo,  at  the  southern  end  of  the  pen- 
insula, is  important  from  its  close  relation  to  Denmark  and  the  north 
German  ports.  Other  Baltic  ports  are  Norrkoping,  Gefle,  Christian- 
stad,  Hernosane,  etc. 

Swedish  trade  is  largely  with  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Den- 
mark, the  trade  with  the  United  States  being  small.  Timber,  butter, 
and  iron  products  are  the  leading  items  of  export. 

200.   Norway.  —  The  chief  characteristics  of  Norwegian  indus- 
try are   the   fisheries   and   the   timber   products.     The  former  are 
1  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  p.  279. 


Scandinavian  Countries  307 

carried  on  extensively  along  the  coasts  and  islands ;  cod  and  herring 
are  the  fish  most  largely  taken.  Whale  fishing  is  also  followed  to 
some  extent.  Cod-liver  oil  and  train  oil  are  items  of  export.  The 
population  of  Norway  has  always  turned  largely  to  the  sea  as  a 
means  of  subsistence,  since  the  barren,  rocky  soil  and  forbidding 
climate,  render  extensive  agriculture  well-nigh  impossible.  The 
open  winter  harbors  and  the  abundance  of  timber  naturally  led  to 
the  building  of  wooden  vessels,  and  the  following  of  the  deep-sea 
commerce  by  a  large  proportion  of  the  people.  The  Norwegian  bark 
and  the  Norwegian  sailor  are  common  in  the  merchant  service  of 
other  nations.  Various  mineral  deposits  abound  in  Norway,  but  they 
are  little  developed;  copper,  silver,  rock  phosphate,  and  infusorial 
earth  are  among  the  minerals  most  exploited.  Norway  depends  far 
more  than  Sweden  on  the  importation  of  food  products  for  home 
consumption. 

The  chief  commercial  towns  which  are  all  seaports  are  :  Chris- 
tiania,  the  capital,  at  the  head  of  the  Skager-Rack,  Stavanger,  Bergen, 
Christiansund,  and  beyond  the  Arctic  circle,  Tromso  and  Hammer- 
fest.  The  trade  of  the  country  is  mostly  with  Great  Britain,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  and  Iceland,  Germany,  Russia,  Holland,  and  Belgium. 

Upwards  of  seven  thousand  miles  of  railroad  are  in  operation  in  the 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  and  lines  are  being  still  further  developed 
where  the  mineral  wealth  gives  good  prospects  of  return.  One  road 
in  Norway  traverses  the  mining  district  of  the  Glommen  River  Valley 
with  a  terminus  at  Christiania.  Another  crosses  the  plateau  and  ter- 
minates at  Stockholm,  while  another,  within  the  Arctic  circle,  has 
opened  up  a  rich  iron-ore  district. 

201.  Denmark.  — The  Kingdom  of  Denmark  occupies  the  north- 
ern portion  of  the  Peninsula  of  Jutland  and  the  adjoining  islands. 
The  eastern  part  is  the  most  fertile,  and  the  best  harbors  are  located 
along  the  Baltic  side.  The  chief  industries  of  the  country  are  agri- 
culture, live  stock  raising,  and  dairying.  Home  manufactures  are 
encouraged  by  the  government.  Among  the  manufactured  products 


308  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

exported  are  gloves  made  from  the  skins  of  the  animals  raised  in 
the  country. 

Copenhagen,  on  the  strait  between  the  Cattegat  and  the  Baltic,  is 
the  capital,  and  the  chief  commercial  center.  Denmark  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  with  her  colonies  in  Iceland  and  the  Faroe  Islands, 
and  on  the  west  coast  of  Greenland.  From  there  she  gets  chiefly 
fish,  whale  and  seal  oil,  etc.  In  both  Iceland  and  the  Faroes,  sheep 
raising  is  carried  on,  also  the  gathering  of  sea  birds'  eggs  and  eider 
down.  Denmark's  largest  trade  is  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany ; 
the  bulk  of  her  exports  consists  of  butter,  pork,  lard,  eggs,  etc. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS   AND  TOPICS 

232.  Compare  the  climate  and  productions  of  Scandinavia  with  those  of 
Russia  and  British  America  in  the  same  latitude. 

233-  What  is  indicated  by  the  prominence  of  the  manufacture  of  matches  in 
Sweden  ? 

234.  Investigate  the  metal  supplies  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula. 

235.  Why  should  shipping  be  so  important  an  interest  in  Norway  ? 

236.  What  are  the  political  relations  of  Norway  and  Sweden? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**  Chapter  XIII,    The  Scandinavian  Kingdoms.      The  International  Geography. 

Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapter  XII.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 

**  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  278-283. 

*  Louis,  Iron  Industry  in  Sweden.     Engineering  Magazine,  Vol.  XVII. 

**  The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

RUSSIA   IN   EUROPE 

202.  Physical  Features.  —  Russia  proper,  or  European  Russia, 
is  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  vast  territory  which  the  entire  Empire 
now  embraces.  Out  of  a  grand  total  of  8,660,395  square  miles, 
only  some  25  per  cent  is  included  within  European  territory, 
and  this  inclusive  of  Poland  and  Finland.  No  physical  barrier  of 
moment  intervenes  between  Asiatic  and  European  Russia.  The 
climate  grows  more  and  more  continental  in  character  from  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  eastward  into  Siberia,  where  the  greatest  annual 
extremes  are  met  with.  Physically,  European  Russia  is  the  great 
Northern  Plain  of  Europe,  continuous  with  the  Siberian  Plain,  and 
broken  only  by  the  low  ranges  of  the  Ural  Mountain  system.  In 
the  direction  of  latitude,  it  reaches  from  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 
Ocetin  to  the  Black  Sea  and  the  borders  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  river  basins  form  the  most  conspicuous  feature  of  Russian 
topography,  and  have  to  a  large  extent  determined  the  movements 
of  commerce.  The  great  rivers  of  central  Russia  take  their  rise 
in  an  elevation  of  the  plain  in  the  district  about  Moscow,  a  region 
of  peat  swamps  and  lakes ;  from  this  elevation  the  rivers  flow  west- 
ward, eastward,  and  southward.  Certain  conditions,  however,  off- 
set the  advantages  of  these  natural  highways.  Ice  blocks  the  river 
navigation  in  many  parts,  for  certain  months  of  the  year.  The 
Dnieper,  the  chief  waterway  from  the  Black  Sea,  is  barred  by 
numerous  rapids,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Bug  and  the  Dneister. 
The  Volga,  the  largest  river  of  Europe,  is  navigable  for  steam 
craft  for  upwards  of  1600  miles  (with  its  tributaries  affording  all 

309 


3io  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

together  some  7000  miles  of  navigable  waterway).  This  empties 
into  the  land-locked  Caspian  Sea,  and  goods  for  oversea  trade 
must  be  transshipped  at  Tsarit(syn)  across  the  short  divide  to  the 
Don  navigation.  For  the  greater  part  of  their  course  the  Russian 
rivers  are  too  shallow  to  permit  of  anything  but  barges  and  vessels 
of  light  draught.  Extensive  canalization  has  overcome  many  diffi- 
culties in  the  passage  of  rapids  and  shallows ;  the  low  divides,  sep- 
arating contiguous  river  basins,  have  favored  the  construction  of  a 
widespread  system  of  canals  which  unite  virtually  all  the  Russian 
rivers,  forming  a  vast  network  of  continuous  waterways,  by  which 
the  Black  Sea,  the  Baltic,  and  the  Caspian  are  united.  This  exten- 
sive river  and  canal  traffic,  though  possessing  many  advantages, 
has  retarded  the  development  of  railroads  in  European  Russia  until 
a  comparatively  recent  period. 

203.  Resources  and  Industries. — The  northern  portion  of  Euro- 
pean Russia  is  a  waste  of  frozen  marshes,  the  "  tundra,"  support- 
ing only  reindeer  moss  and  stunted  vegetation.  South  of  this  is 
the  great  forest  belt,  a  tree-line  zone  of  scrub  forests  in  the  north, 
further  to  the  south  are  the  fully  developed  forests  of  conifers, 
beeches,  and  other  hardwoods.  In  central  Russia  the  forests  grad- 
ually give  place  to  the  more  open  lands  of  the  black  earth  region, 
where  agriculture  reaches  its  highest  development.  To  the  east- 
ward this  black  earth  region  passes  into  the  arid  steppes. 

Of  the  total  area  of  European  Russia,  amounting  to  upwards  of 
a  billion  acres,  over  28  per  cent  is  under  cultivation,  some 
14  per  cent  is  in  orchard,  meadow,  and  pasture  land,  37  per  cent 
is  forest  covered,  and  19  per  cent  unavailable  for  tillage.  The  aver- 
age density  of  population  throughout  European  Russia  proper,  is 
about  51  to  the  square  mile,  varying  from  one  person  per  square 
mile  in  the  Arctic  province  of  Archangel  to  189  per  square  mile 
in  the  province  of  Moscow. 

Rye  is  the  most  important  cereal  crop  -of  Russia,  followed  by 
oats,  wheat,  and  barley.  Next  to  rye,  potatoes  are  the  chief 


Russia  in  Europe  311 

source  of  food  supply.  Flax  and  hemp  are  largely  cultivated,  and 
the  beet  root  and  tobacco  are  extensively  grown.  Fruit  and  vine 
culture  are  among  the  chief  features  of  agriculture  in  the  Crimea. 
Stock  raising  is  also  very  largely  followed. 

The  production  of  iron  has  assumed  a  foremost  place  in  southern 
Russia,  notably  in  the  province  of  Yekaterinoslaff;  nearly  three  mil- 
lion tons  of  pig  iron  were  produced  in  1901.  Coal  is  also  found 
in  several  localities,  notably  in  southwestern  Poland,  in  the  lower 
Don  Basin,  west  of  the  Urals,  and  to  the  south  of  Moscow.  (For 
petroleum,  etc.,  see  Chapter  XXVIII,  Russia  in  Asia.) 

Though  Russia  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country,  industrial 
activity  has  been  marked  in  recent  years.  Reasons  for  this  are, 
exploitation  of  the  mineral  resources,  the  abolition  of  serfdom,  the 
vast  and  rapid  expansion  of  territory,  and  the  introduction  of  railroad 
systems.  The  primitive  conditions  of  economy,  where  each  family 
was  at  once  producer  and  consumer,  held  in  Russia  up  to  within  a 
comparatively  recent  period.  This  system  survived  much  longer  in 
Russia  than  in  other  European  countries.  The  example  of  other 
nations  has  undoubtedly  been  an  important  factor  in  Russia's  indus- 
trial advance.  Russia  now  carries  on  most  kinds  of  manufacture  and 
in  many  lines  is  a  Reading  competitor  in  the  world's  markets. 

Important  textile  industries  have  developed  in  Poland  and  about 
Moscow,  incident  to  the  coal  fields  of  these  regions.  The  Russian 
flax  fields  have  given  a  prominence  to  linen  manufacture.  Warsaw 
and  Lodz  (Poland),  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg  are  all  great  centers 
of  industrial  activity  v/here  a  variety  of  manufactures  are  carried 
on.  Cotton  and  woolen  textiles  are  the  leading  manufactures  in  the 
Polish  and  Baltic  provinces,  the  moist  climate  being  especially  favor- 
able to  the  cotton  industry.  The  iron  and  steel  industry  has  been 
advanced  rapidly  in  Poland.  Flour  milling,  brewing,  distilling,  and 
sugar  refining  are  among  the  more  notable  industries  carried  on  at 
different  centers  throughout  European  Russia.  The  chief  seaports 
of  European  Russia  are  at  St.  Petersburg  and  Riga  (Baltic  ports), 


312  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Onega  and  Archangel  (on  the  White  Sea),  and  Odessa  and  Sebastopol 
(Black  Sea). 

Russian  commerce,  railways,  etc.,  will  be  further  treated  in  the  next 
chapter,  Russia  in  Asia. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

237.  Explain  the  increasing  extremes  of  temperature  as  you  go  east  in  Russia. 

238.  Why  are  there  more  canals  in  Russia  than  in  the  countries  of  central 
and  southern  Europe  ? 

239.  What  has  favored  the  formation  of  the  great  Russian  Empire  ? 

240.  Why  was  Nfzni-Novgorod  the  site  of  a  great  fair  ?     Has  this  fair  been  of 
increased  or  lessened  importance  of  late  years  ?     Why? 

241.  Give  an  account  of  the  great  Russian  public  works,  beginning  with  the 
work  of  Peter  the  Great. 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*D.  Aitoff,  The  Russian  Empire.     The  International  Geography,  Chapter  XXII. 
Sime,  Geography  of  Europe,  Chapter  XIII.     Macmillan's  Geographical  Series. 
*Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography,  pp.  270-275. 
**  The  Statesman's  Yearbook.     (See  also  at  the  close  of  Chapter  XXVIII.) 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 

RUSSIA  IN  ASIA 

204.  Siberia.  —  Asiatic  Russia  .embraces  four  vast  territorial  do- 
mains —  Siberia,  Transcaucasia,  Transcaspia,  and  Turkestan.  Under 
the  general  name  of  Siberia  are  included  several  so-called  "  govern- 
ments," each  of  which  represents  a  somewhat  distinct  geographical 
area.  As  thus  described  Siberia  covers  an  area  of  4,833,000  square 
miles  (more  than  half  of  the  total  area  of  the  entire  Russian  Empire) 
and  contains  a  population  of  over  5,000,000  souls,  representing  an 
average  density  of  little  more  than  one  person  per  square  mile. 

Siberia,  as  a  whole,  consists  of  three  primary  zones,  correspond- 
ing, in  a  general  way,  to  the  tundras,  the  forest  zone,  and  the 
steppes.  According  to  Russian  geographers,  these  are  designated  the 
polar,  the  forest,  and  the  agricultural  zones.  The  agricultural  zone 
(the  northern  limit  of  which  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  tem- 
perature under  which  agriculture  can  profitably  be  pursued,  is  above 
the  lowest  yearly  average  of  57°  F.)  may  be  defined  as  lying  south  of 
a  line  which  starting  in  the  western  part  at  about  the  6oth  parallel 
passes  across  the  continent  to  the  5oth  parallel  on  the  east  coast,  cut- 
ting the  northern  portion  of  Lake  Baikal  in  its  course.1  In  the 
western  part  of  this  agricultural  zone,  two  distinct  portions  are  recog- 
nized —  a  northern  belt  of  rather  arid  steppe  land,  and  a  south- 
ern and  more  fertile  belt  which  lies  in  a  hilly  region  among  the  slopes 
of  the  Altai  and  other  mountain  ranges.  The  area  of  the  agricultural 
zone  is  variously  estimated  at  from  500,000  to  1,000,000  square  miles. 

1  See  The  Russian  Empire.  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance ;  April,  1899. 
Treasury  Department. 

313 


314  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

It  is  the  most  densely  populated  of  the  three  zones.  Its  southern 
portion  enjoys  a  remarkably  mild  climate,  being  protected  on  the 
north  by  a  range  of  lofty  mountains.  It  is  the  chief  region  of  cereal 
crop  growth,  and  vegetable  and  forest  cultivation.  The  northern, 
and  more  arid  portion,  affords  splendid  grazing  land,  and  is  also 
suited  to  the  growth  of  hard-grained  wheat  and  other  cereals,  as  oats. 
The  inland  fisheries  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  agricultural  zone 
are  destined  to  be  of  increasing  importance. 

The  forest  zone  to  the  north,  with  an  area  of  upwards  of  2,000,000 
square  miles  (43  per  cent  of  the  whole),  but  with  a  population  of 
hardly  more  than  800,000,  is  a  region  of  unknown  mineral  and  tim- 
ber wealth.  This,  under  the  influence  of  capital  and  industry,  will 
probably  become  one  of  the  great  producing  regions  of  the  world. 
The  forest  zone  is  the  home  of  many  varieties  of  fur-bearing  animals, 
the  trapping  and  hunting  of  which  has  long  been  an  important 
occupation.  Securing  fur  was  the  pioneer  pursuit  that  led  to  the  ex- 
ploration of  vast  tracts  of  wilderness.  This  is  still  a  prominent 
industry,  but  another  value  of  the  forest  zone  in  Siberian  commerce 
is  beginning  to  be  realized.  Its  rich  supply  of  minerals,  and  its 
immense  timber  resources,  will  afford  material  and  fuel  for  future 
industries,  many  of  which  are  already  being  developed. 

Some  thirty  gold  mines  are  in  operation  in  the  territory  of 
Semipalatinsk  alone,  and  placer  mining  is  carried  on  in  the  Amur 
province.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  and  iron  mines,  have  long  been  in 
operation  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  Tomsk.  The  Ural  Moun- 
tains abound  in  rich  metalliferous  deposits,  gold  mining  being  there 
carried  on  extensively.  The  production  of  platinum  in  this  region 
should  be  especially  noted ;  the  great  bulk  of  the  world's  supply  of 
platinum  is  obtained  from  the  Ural  mines.  In  the  Altai  region, 
there  is  building  stone  of  wonderful  variety.  Coal,  iron,  graphite, 
sulphur,  copper,  lead,  tin,  mercury,  gold,  silver,  salt,  and  naphtha  are 
among  the  most  important  metals  and  mineral  substances  produced. 
Sakhalin  Island  has  coal  fields  producing  coal  of  fine  quality  ;  the 


Russia  in  Asia  315 

mines  at  this  place  are  at  present  worked  solely  for  the  government  to 
coal  the  Pacific  naval  fleet.  Kamchatka,  the  Yakutsk  province  (which 
includes  the  Lena  Basin  and  the  Stanovi  Mountains),  and  other  dis- 
tricts are  supplied  with  coal,  iron  ores,  and  other  varieties  of  min- 
erals. Fossil  ivory  (the  tusks  of  the  mammoth,  a  prehistoric 
elephant)  is  also  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  forest  zone  and  to 
the  north. 

Notwithstanding  the  abundance  of  the  minerals  and  the  natural 
resources  of  the  forest,  agriculture  is  still  the  leading  occupation 
in  Siberia.  The  Russian  peasant  is  essentially  an  agriculturist,  and 
it  is  these  peasants  that  have  most  largely  settled  Siberia.  Farming 
methods  are  still  primitive,  but  a  new  order  of  things  already  begins 
to  assert  itself,  and  the  yield  of  the  virgin  soil  will  be  vastly  in- 
creased. 

The  great  Siberian  railroad,  connecting  St.  Petersburg  with 
Vladivostok  on  the  Pacific  coast  (a  distance  of  6000  miles),  has 
opened  up  the  most  productive  portion  of  Siberian  territory.  Its 
line  through  the  Chinese  territory  of  Manchuria  to  Port  Arthur  on 
the  Gulf  of  Petchili,  reaches  another  region  destined  to  contribute 
largely  to  the  world's  markets.  The  chief  towns  on  the  route  of 
the  Siberian  road  are  Omsk,  on  the  Irtysh,  a  commercial  center 
of  the  steppe  region;  Krasnoyarsk  on  the  Yenisei,  the  center 
of  a  rich  mining  district ;  Irkutsk  on  the  Angara  tributary  of  the 
Yenisei  where  it  leaves  Lake  Baikal ;  Chita  and  Nertchinsk,  im- 
portant trading  centers  of  the  mining  region  of  Transbaikalia. 

205.  Transcaucasia.  —  The  Asiatic  provinces  of  the  Caucasus,  or 
Transcaucasia,  is  a  fertile  region  of  valleys  between  the  Caucasus 
range  and  the  table-lands  of  Persia  and  Armenia.  It  is  mainly 
agricultural,  but  contains  rich  supplies  of  minerals,  among  which 
is  petroleum.  Baku,  a  Caspian  seaport,  is  in  the  center  of  the 
petroleum  district.  Deposits  of  rock  salt  are  found  on  the  Armenian 
table-land,  and  copper,  iron,  coal,  and  manganese  in  various  localities. 
A  fine  grade  of  wool  is  produced  from  the  sheep  pastures  of  the 


316  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

region.  A  railroad  line  has  opened  up  the  productive  areas  and 
brought  the  region  into  communication  with  surrounding  countries. 
Tiflis  is  the  capital  and  chief  town  of  the  country. 

206.  Transcaspia   and   Turkestan.  —  The    Transcaspian    railroad 
has  opened  up  a  wide  tract  of  promising  country  in  central  Asia. 
This  region,  which  includes  the  territory  generally  known  as  Turkes- 
tan, is  in  large  part  a  desert ;  its  agricultural  possibilities  depend 
upon  the  presence  of  streams  which  flow  from  the  neighboring  moun- 
tain ranges.      The  chief  rivers  are  the  Amu  Daria  or  Oxus,  and  the 
Sir  Daria  or  Jaxartes,  which  flow  into  the  Sea  of  Aral  and  afford 
routes  for  the  interior  trade.     Many  of  the  smaller  rivers  lose  them- 
selves in  the  desert  sands.     The  principal  towns  along  the  line  of  the 
railroad  are  Askabad,  the  capital  of  the  Transcaspian  province,  near 
the  northern  frontier  of  Persia;    Merv,  on  an  oasis  of  the  same 
name ;  Bokhara  and  Samarckand,  important  centers  of  trade  for  a 
wide  surrounding   region ;    and  Tashkend   on   the    Sir  Daria  river, 
the  present  terminus  of  the  railroad.     The  chief  manufactures  of  the 
region  are  in  cotton  and  silk  materials  and  leather  work.     The  loco- 
motives of  the  Transcaspian  road  are  petroleum  burners,  from  the 
great  abundance  of  this  sort  of  fuel.     The  steamers  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  also  use  petroleum.     A  line  of  steamers  connects  Baku  on  the 
west  coast  with  the  western  terminus  of  the  Transcaspian  road  on 
the  opposite  shore  of  the  sea.     (See  p.  79  for  petroleum  produced.) 

By  means  of  the  Transcaspian  road,  Russia  is  bidding  for  the 
trade  of  a  vast  region,  much  of  which  formerly  went  into  India 
by  various  caravan  routes.  The  establishment  of  this  railroad  was 
an  important  move  in  obtaining  a  sphere  of  influence.  The  road 
is  in  close  touch  with  Persia  (through  which  country  a  branch  road 
is  projected  to  the  Gulf  of  Oman),  with  Afghanistan,  and  with  the 
western  domains  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

207.  The  Trade  of  Russia.  —  The  Russian  Empire,  as  a  whole, 
is  a  country  of  vast  raw  material  production ;   more  than  90  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  exports  are  food  materials,  raw  products,  and 


Russia  in  Asia 


317 


partially  manufactured  articles.  Of  the  entire  amount  of  grain 
produced,  rye,  oats,  and  wheat  are  the  most  important.  Live  animals 
form  a  considerable  item  in  the  export  trade.  Corn  and  buckwheat, 
eggs,  dairy  products,  beet  sugar,  fruits,  potatoes  and  other  vegetables, 
tobacco,  fish  and  caviare,  meats,  alcohol,  and  gin  are  among  the  more 
important  articles  classed  as  food  exports.  Of  the  goods  classed  as 
raw  and  partially  manufactured  are,  timber  and  wooden  materials, 
rlax,  naphtha  and  naphtha  oils,  oil  grains  and  oil  cakes,  leather  and 
furs,  hemp,  bristles,  hair  and  feathers,  wool,  manganese  ores,  and 
metals  (chiefly  platinum). 
Of  manufactured  goods,  the 
chief  exports  are  metallic 
products,  gutta-percha  goods, 
and  cotton  and  woolen  tex- 
tiles. The  food  imports  are 
chiefly  tea  (29  per  cent  of  the 
entire  value  of  imported  food- 
stuffs), fish,  spirituous  liquors, 
fruits,  nuts,  vegetables,  cof- 
fee, rice,  and  tobacco.  Of 
imported  raw  and  partly 
manufactured  products,  the  TOTAL  COMMERCE  FOR  ALL  THE  RUSSIAS 


GERMANY 

403 

-  35.5$ 

UNITED  KINGDOM 

274 

-  24.5* 

FRANCE 

89 

-      7.5* 

NETHERLANDS 

69 

-     6.5* 

FINLAND 

61 

-     5.5* 

AUSTRIA  HUNGARY 

54 

-      4.5* 

UNITED  STATES 

43 

=          4% 

ITALY 

3fi 

—             3* 

BELGIUM 

3d 

-            3% 

ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

63 

6* 

principal  ones  are,  raw  cotton, 
raw  metals,  coal  and  coke,  raw 
wool  and  woolen  yarn,  resin 


(1900),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MILLIONS  OF 
RUBLES 


Total,  1,125,000,000  Rubles 

and  gum,  leather  and  hides,  raw  silk  and  silk  yarns,  chemicals  an  1 
pigments.  Machinery,  metal  goods,  cotton  and  other  textiles  are 
among  the  chief  manufactured  articles  imported. 

The  bulk  of  Russia's  trade  is  with  Germany  and  Great  Britain. 
The  United  States'  share  in  the  trade  is  small,  but  there  are  vast 
possibilities  of  a  market  for  American  manufactures  in  Russia,  more 
especially  in  Siberia.  Russia  is  frequently  compared  with  the  United 
States  in  extent  of  territory  and  richness  of  resources.  But  Russia's 


318  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

manufacturing  industries  are  not  comparable  to  those  of  this  coun- 
try. Russia  is  still  a  large  importer  of  manufactured  goods  and  offers 
a  good  field  for  products  of  this  kind.  Several  European  countries 
are  already  active  to  place  their  goods  on  this  market,  but  the  United 
States,  with  its  advantages  of  position  in  regard  to  Siberia,  should 
be  a  foremost  competitor.  American  locomotives,  mining  and  mill 
machinery,  hardware,  harvesting  machinery  and  other  farm  imple- 
ments, textiles,  and  other  lines  of  goods  can  compete  successfully  in 
the  Siberian  and  Russian  markets.  The  Siberian  railroad  promises 
to  be  a  factor  of  great  importance  in  the  trade  of  the  far  East,  not 
only  in  Russian  territory,  but  in  China  and  other  countries  as  well. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS. 

242.  Compare  the  physical  features  of  Siberia  with  those  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada. 

243.  Trace  the  passage  by  rail  from  Paris  to  Port  Arthur,  noting  the  chief 
cities  and  principal  regions.      (See  maps  p.  245  and  opposite  p.  315.) 

244.  Compare  the  petroleum  region  of  the  Caspian  with  that  of  the  United 
States. 

245.  What  is  the  strategic  and  commercial  importance  of  a  railroad  across 
Siberia  ? 

246.  A  recent  writer  terms  the  Siberian  railroad  "  a  costly  toy,  with  slight 
chances  of  proving  a  paying  investment  for  many  years  to  come."     What  is  your 
opinion  of  this  statement  ? 

247.  What  is  the  probable  future  influence  of  the  Siberian  railroad  on  the 
Suez  Canal  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*D.  Aitoff,  The  Russian  Empire.  The  International  Geography,  Chapter  XXII. 
Industries  of  Russia,  translated  by  J.  M.  Crawford.  5  volumes.  St.  Petersburg; 

1893.     (Prepared  for  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago.) 
**The  Russian  Empire  and  the  J^rans- Siberian  Railway.     Monthly  Summary  of 

Commerce  and  Finance;   April,  1899.     Treasury  Department. 
*  Vladimir,  Russia  on  the  Pacific  and  the  Siberian  Railway.     London  ;    1899. 
** Russia,  British  Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports.      Miscellaneous  Series,  Nos. 

529-533-     London  ;    1900. 

Gerrare,  Greater  Russia.     Macmillan  Co.;    1903. 
Norman,  The  Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East.     New  York;   1895. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 

THE   CHINESE   EMPIRE 

208.  Physical  Features.  —  The  Chinese  Empire  covers  an  area  of 
upwards  of  4,000,000  square  miles,  and  includes  the  greater  part  of 
the  lofty  highland  region  of  central  Asia.  Aside  from  China  proper, 
the  Empire  embraces  the  countries  of  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Tibet, 
and  Eastern  Turkestan.  These  outlying  dependencies  are  for  the 
most  part  elevated  plateaus  and  desert  regions,  and  with  the 
exception  of  Manchuria  are  at  present  of  little  commercial  impor- 
tance. Manchuria  is  a  mountainous  country,  forest  clad  in  some 
portions  and  with  numerous  fertile  river  valleys,  especially  in  the 
northern  provinces.  Though  still  reckoned  as  a  part  of  China,  it  is 
practically  under  the  Russian  sphere  of  influence. 

China  proper  covers  an  area  of  1,300,000  square  miles  and  has  a 
population  of  383,000,000,  representing  an  average  density  of  283 
per  square  mile.  The  western  portion  is  mountainous  while  the 
eastern  consists  of  the  delta  plain  of  the  two  great  rivers  —  the  Yang- 
tse-Kiang  and  Hoangho.  In  the  northern  provinces  a  large  tract  of 
country  is  deeply  covered  with  a  fine  yellow  soil  of  great  fertility ;  this 
soil  is  known  as  loess.  In  the  southeastern  part,  the  country  is  more 
undulating  than  in  the  southwest,  and  in  the  upper  Yangtse  Basin 
there  occurs  an  exceedingly  rich  red  soil.  The  conservatism  of  the 
Chinese  people  has  been  largely  fostered  by  the  peculiar  topography 
of  the  country ;  China  is  a  region  of  remarkably  fertile  soils  and 
favorable  climate,  fronting  eastward  on  the  ocean  and  shut  off  from 
the  countries  to  the  north,  west,  and  south  by  high  mountain  ranges. 
The  economic  conditions  have  long  maintained  a  balance,  undisturbed 
by  outside  influences. 

319 


320 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


209.  Resources  and  Industries.  —  Extending  through  more  than 
twenty  degrees  of  latitude,  China  presents  a  wide  range  of  climate  with 
a  corresponding  diversity  in  the  vegetable  productions.  The  whole  of 
China  proper  (with  the  exception  of  the  western  higher  portions) 
may  be  divided  into  three  zones,  each  of  which  is  distinguished  by 
certain  features  of  climate  and  products.  The  Northern  Zone,  cor- 
responding in  a  general  way  to  the  basin  of  the  Hoangho,  has  dry 
climate  with  little  rainfall,  the  winters  are  long  and  severe,  the  sum- 
mers short  and  hot.  The  Middle  Zone  embraces  the  Yangtse  Basin, 
and  is  characterized  by  a  moist  climate  with  some  frost  and  snow 
during  the  winter,  —  a  climate  resembling  in  many  respects  that  of 
our  South  Atlantic  States.  The  Southern  Zone,  or  the  basin  of  the 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  TEA 

Canton  River,  is  a  subtropical  region  with  excessive  heat  and  mois- 
ture ;  it  has  a  climate  which  the  European  emigrant  finds  oppressive.1 
Agriculture  is  the  basis  of  China's  industry  and  commerce.  The 
land  is  held  mainly  in  small  holdings  and  is  everywhere  under  a 
high  state  of  cultivation.  Methods  of  tillage  are,  however,  of  the 
most  primitive  kind.  Irrigation  is  extensively  practiced,  especially 
in  the  loess  region,  the  porous  soil  of  which  drains  so  rapidly  that 
a  fairly  copious  rainfall  has  little  effect  upon  the  ground.  Maize, 
wheat,  barley,  millet,  sorghum,  beans,  and  peas  are  the  chief  food 
crops  of  the  Northern  Zone. 

1  Journal  of  the  Manchester  Geographical  Society  ;  April  to  June,  1898, 


The  Chinese  Empire  321 

Rice  is  the  principal  food  crop  of  the  Southern  and  Middle  Zones, 
though  almost  unknown  in  the  north.  Cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  indigo 
are  also  extensively  cultivated  in  the  provinces  of  the  Middle  and 
Southern  Zones.  Tea  is  the  chief  crop  grown  on  the  hill  slopes  of 
the  south  and  west.  The  opium  poppy  is  a  crop  of  importance 
throughout  China.  The  mulberry  tree  flourishes  in  both  the 
Middle  and  Southern  Zones,  and  in  these  districts  silk  culture  is  a 
leading  industry ;  silk  and  tea  rank  as  the  most  important  of  Chinese 
products. 

The  textile  and  manufacturing  industries  are  almost  entirely  of  a 
domestic  character,  factories  (mostly  under  foreign  management) 
having  been  developed  in  only  a  few  places.  Some  of  these  are  for 
the  reeling  of  silk  and  others  for  cotton  spinning.  Cotton  garments 
(padded  in  winter)  form  the  chief  clothing  of  a  vast  population. 
Among  the  characteristic  Chinese  industries  is  the  manufacture  of 
chinaware  and  porcelain  from  the  peculiar  clays  found  in  certain 
parts.  China  grass  supplies  rhea  fiber;  the  weaving  of  this  for  light 
garments  is  a  domestic  industry. 

China  has  enormous  mineral  wealth,  the  extent  of  which  is  scarcely 
realized  as  yet.  The  Chinese  coal  fields  are  estimated  to  cover  an 
area  twenty  times  greater  than  that  of  all  the  European  coal  fields 
combined.  The  coal  is  both  anthracite  and  bituminous,  and  where 
worked  under  foreign  supervision  is  highly  productive.  Iron  ores  of 
excellent  quality  are  also  abundant  and  occur  with  coal  in  many 
places.  Copper,  tin,  lead,  and  silver  are  also  plentiful  and  have 
already  been  mined.  The  manufacture  of  arms  and  ammunition  is 
actively  carried  on  as  a  result  of  the  act  prohibiting  the  importa- 
tion of  such  articles. 

210.  Commercial  China  and  the  Treaty  Ports.  —  China  carries  on 
an  extensive  river  and  coastwise  traffic.  The  Yangtse  is  navigable  by 
steamers  for  at  least  1000  miles  from  its  mouth  (to  the  town  of 
Ichang).  The  Hoangho  has  too  many  bars  and  rapids  to  permit 
of  extensive  navigation.  Canals  are  numerous,  but  the  wagon 

Y 


322 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


roads  are  poor  and  only  a  comparatively  small  mileage  of  railroad 
is  in  operation.  The  waterways  are  open  to  both  foreign  and  native 
steamers,  and  the  freight  rates  by  water  are  remarkably  cheap.  The 
coastwise  trade  is  carried  on  by  native  junks  and  British  and 
other  foreign  vessels.  The  telegraph  is  under  government  control, 
and  lines  are  being  rapidly  extended  throughout  the  Empire. 


I      R 


l:;5 


,wago«*«A* 

*  nfl*" 

•^  >  ' 


K1Vr*  /^vJsV^T     V 

-L-S— -KmA 


*r7 


Jlyithy 

oLl^A, 

^c«tt " 


Mandal 

B  l/RfM 
KEY  **« 

Treaty  Ports. 
Ports  of  Foreign  Control. 
Railways,  in  Operation. 
Railways,  in  Construction," 
or  Proposed.  95 


/  f^" 

H 


\^\w»in 
!7  s  i 


»s?\fss$i 

•XTONK&rf^^T)*^^^?*^- 

!_\.    Hanoi) 
v  xC 


L«»2j 

/tJap««' 


1 

A  M 


"  i(  5 


^^"S 


115 


.  .ks 

^^ 


125 


Tea  and  silk  (both  raw  and  manufactured)  form  by  far  the  largest 
value  of  the  export  trade,  while  opium  and  cotton  goods  are  the  chief 
imports  of  value.  Kerosene  oil,  sugar,  metals,  and  rice  are  also 
largely  imported.  Of  the  tea  export  in  1900  about  9  per  cent  went 
to  Great  Britain,  about  18  per  cent  came  to  the  United  States,  and 


The  Chinese  Empire 


323 


nearly  50  per  cent  went  to  Russia.  Russia  imports  tea  from  China 
largely  in  the  form  of  "  brick  "  and  "  tablet "  tea,  i.e-.  pressed  into 
blocks,  the  latter  being  a  finer  variety. 

Of  the  total  trade  of  China  (both  export  and  import)  some  15  per 
cent  of  the  value  is  with  Great  Britain,  about  8  per  cent  with  the 
United  States,  4  per  cent  with  Russia,  1 2  per  cent  with  Japan,  6  per 
cent  with  India,  10  per  cent  with  the  continent  of  Europe,  exclusive 
of  Russia,  and  44  per  cent  with 
the  British  colony  of  Hong- 
Kong  (1900). 

Not  all  of  the  Chinese  ports 
are  open  to  foreign  trade,  but 
a  number  of  treaty  ports  have 
been  established  where  foreign 
commerce  is  actively  prose- 
cuted (see  map).  Of  these 
treaty  ports  (exclusive  of  the 
British  crown  colony  of  Hong- 
Kong  and  the  Portuguese 
treaty  port  of  Macao)  that  of 
Shanghai  does  the  largest  for- 


HONG-KONG 

159                             -44* 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

55                               —15* 

JAPAN 

42                               -12* 

EUROPE  (RUSSIA  EXCLUDED)  35                     —10* 

UNITED  STATES 

31                             =-  8.5* 

INDIA 

20                               —    6* 

RUSSIA 

17                              —   «f-5* 

COMBINED  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  CHINA 
(IQOO),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MILLIONS  OF 

TAELS 

Total,  359,000,000  Taels 


eign  trade,  followed  by  Canton, 
and  others  of  less  importance. 
There  were  thirty-four  treaty  ports  in  1901. 

China  offers  a  vast  field  for  commercial  enterprise.  Her  enormous 
mineral  resources,  especially  coal,  and  the  great  variety  and  abun- 
dance of  her  productions,  invite  foreign  capital.  Add  to  these  facts, 
a  population  of  400,000,000  souls  throughout  the  Empire,  and  it  is 
evident  that  a  share  in  the  commerce  of  China  is  a  golden  oppor- 
tunity for  the  peoples  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Spheres  of 
influence  are  being  extended  for  the  furthering  of  trade,  notably  by 
Russia,  Germany,  and  England. 

The  rigid  conservatism  of  the  Chinese  is  gradually  giving  way  to 


324  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

European  methods  of  work.  Considerable  coal  is  being  mined 
and  factories  pf  various  kinds  are  being  built  and  operated  success- 
fully. At  the  same  time,  railroad  lines  are  being  laid  to  reach  the 
productive  areas,  and  are  projected  to  connect  the  numerous  popu- 
lous centers  of  the  Empire.  From  the  facts  as  they  exist,  it  is  fair 
to  predict  a  brilliant  future  for  Chinese  commerce. 

211.  Korea.  —  Korea,  on  a  peninsula  of  the  same  name,  obtained 
its  independence  in  1895  as  a  result  of  the  Chinese-Japanese  War. 
It  is  largely  an  agricultural  country,  and  exports  considerable  quanti- 
ties  of  rice,   beans,   and   ginseng.     Korea   raises   grain  crops   and 
tobacco.     Coal,  iron,  and  copper  abound  also  in  the  country,  and 
several  foreign  companies  are   working  gold   mines.     The  trade   is 
largely  with  China,  Russia,  and  Japan. 

212.  Hong-Kong.  —  The  British  crown  colony  of  Hong-Kong  is 
an  island  of  about  thirty  square  miles  in  area,  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Canton   River.      With  the  island  is  included  a  neighboring 
peninsula,  which  is   a   part  of  the  mainland   of  China.     Victoria  is 
the  chief  city,  commanding  a  fine  harbor  on  the  northern  shore  of 
the  island.     The  population  of  the'  colony  amounts  to  upwards  of 
221,000  souls,  the  largest  proportion  of  which  are  Chinese;  about 
one-third  of  the  Chinese  are  British  subjects.     Nearly  one-half  of  the 
white  population  is  of  Portuguese  origin. 

The  chief  trade  of  the  colony  is  with  Great  Britain,  which  holds 
fully  one-half  of  the  total  value  of  exports  and  imports.  The  remain- 
ing half  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  India,  Australia,  the  United  States, 
and  Germany.  Hong- Kong  is  a  free  port,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
important  naval  and  coaling  stations  in  the  East. 

The  export  trade  is  mainly  in  tropical  products  —  tea,  silk,  sugar, 
hemp,  and  opium,  being  among  the  more  prominent  items.  Com- 
merce is  largely  transient,  the  bulk  of  the  silk  and  tea  trade  of  China 
being  in  the  hands  of  Hong-Kong  houses.  Cotton  manufactures  for 
China  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  imports. 


The  Chinese  Empire  325 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

248.  Compare   the    area    of  the    Chinese  Empire  with    that   of  the  United 
States;   with  that  of  Germany. 

249.  Compare  the  total  population  of  China  with  that  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  ;   of  Russia;  of  the  United  States. 

250.  What  is  meant  by  "the  Eastern  question"  ? 

251.  What  is  a  "treaty  port"  ?     \Vhat  relation  do  these  sustain  to  the  com- 
merce of  China  ? 

252.  What  is  meant  by  "the  dismemberment  of  China"?     What  by  "the 
integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire  "  ?     What  has  been  the  attitude  of  the  United 
States  to  these  respective  policies  ? 

253.  Brooks  Adams  said  that  the  Chinese  trouble  of  1900  began  in  the  city  of 
Pittsburg  in  1897.     Can  you  explain  this? 

254.  How  do  you  account   for  the  very  large   proportion  of  Chinese  trade 
which  is  with  Hong-Kong  ?     What  is  a  "  crown  colony  "  ? 

255.  What  natural  features  have  tended  to  the  isolation  of  China,  and  how 
has  that  country  been  able  to  sustain  herself  so  long  without  dependence   on 
other  nations  ?     Can  China  have  much  development  while  her  people  live  chiefly 
on  rice  ? 

256.  What  is  "  the  hermit  nation  "  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*Chisholm,     The    Chinese    Empire.        The    International    Geography,    Chapter 

XXVIII. 
**  Commercial  China  in  1900.      Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance 

for  June,  1901. 

Sven  Hedin,  Through  Asia.     2  volumes.     London  ;    1898. 
Bishop,  Korea  and  Her  Neighbors.     2  volumes.     London  ;    1897. 
**Parker,    China,  Her  History,  Diplomacy,  and  Commerce.       New    York    and 

London  ;    1901. 
Adams,  Russians  Interest  in  China,  in  American  Economic  Supremacy.     (See 

p.  382.) 


CHAPTER  XXX 

JAPAN 

213.  The  Japanese   Islands.  —  The  Japanese  Archipelago  forms 
the  largest  group  of  islands  in  the  volcanic  mountain  chain  that  rises 
from  the  submarine   platform  of  the    eastern  coast  of  Asia.     The 
group  consists  of  four  main  islands  and  a  number  of  smaller  ones. 
The  largest  island  is  Honshu.     Yezo,  the  next  in  size,  lies  just  north 
of  it,  while   Shikoku  and  Kiusiu  are  to  the  southeast   and  south. 
The    islands   are    separated   from    one   another    by  narrow  straits. 
Between  the  islands  and  the  mainland  of  Asia  is  the  Japan  Sea, 
opening  into  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  on  the  north,  and  on  the  south 
through  the   Strait  of   Korea  into   the  Tung  Hai  or  Eastern  Sea. 
Besides  the  archipelago  proper,  the  island  of  Formosa,  the  Loochoo 
Islands,  and  the  Kuriles,  also  belong  to  Japan.     The  surface  of  the 
islands  is  mountainous  and  the  entire  group  is  volcanic,  subject  to 
frequent  earthquakes,  and  with  numerous  active  volcanoes.    The  soil 
of  the  valleys  and  lowlands   is  fertile,  and  the  climate  excessively 
moist,  the  rainfall  being  abundant  as  a  result  of   the  influence  of 
the  mountain  ranges.     The  streams  are  mostly  torrents  and  unnavi- 
gable,  but  there  are  many  excellent  harbors.     The  southern  portion 
of  the  archipelago  lies  on  the  edge  of  the  tropics,  while  the  northern 
portion  reaches  beyond  the  parallel  of  45°  and  is  subject  to  severe 
winters. 

214.  Resources  and  Industries.  —  The  area  of  Japan  (exclusive 
of  Formosa)  is  147,655  square   miles,  with   an   average  density  of 
population  of  nearly  300  per  square  mile.     Less  than  16  per   cent 
of  the  land  is   under   cultivation,  owing   mainly  to   the  mountain- 
ous nature  of  the  surface.     The  cultivated  area,  however,  is  highly 

326 


WEAVING  RICE-STRAW  MATS  (JAPAN) 


DRY  DOCK  AT  NAGASAKI 


Japan  $27 

productive  as  a  result  of  careful  fertilizing  with  fish  refuse,  etc.  The 
area  under  cultivation  is  well  tilled,  though  the  methods  used  are 
primitive. 

Rice  is  the  chief  food  crop  raised,  both  for  home  consumption  and 
export.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  beans  (soy-bean)  are  of  considerable 
importance.  The  mulberry  tree  is  widely  cultivated,  and  silk  is  the 
export  of  greatest  value.  Tea  is  raised  largely  in  the  southern 
provinces.  The  lacquer  tree  is  also  grown  extensively ;  lacquering 
or  "japanning"  is  a  celebrated  Japanese  industry.  Gum  camphor 
(from  the  camphor  tree)  is  a  product  of  importance.  Live  stock 
raising  forms  an  unimportant  feature  of  Japanese  agriculture. 

Of  the  mineral  products,  coal,  iron,  and  copper  are  the  most  abun- 
dant, and  of  the  greatest  value ;  the  two  former  are  only  partially 
developed,  though  the  output  is  steadily  increasing.  The  mining  of 
coal  was  formerly  under  government  control,  but  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  a  private  corporation,  and  improved  methods  in  the  raising  and 
transporting  of  the  output  have  been  introduced.  The  most  impor- 
tant mines  are  in  Yezo  and  Kiusiu ;  stations  for  the  Japanese  coal 
trade  have  been  established  in  China,  the  Philippines,  Burma, 
and  the  Straits  Settlements.  Antimony  is  mined,  and  the  output  of 
the  Shikoku  mines  is  of  considerable  value.  Copper  mining  in  Japan 
is  an  important  industry,  the  metal  being  remarkably  pure. 

The  manufacturing  industries,  especially  of  textiles,  have  of  late 
years  advanced  quite  rapidly.  Fifty-nine  cotton  mills  were  in  oper- 
ation in  1900,  with  an  annual  output  of  260,000,000  pounds  of  cotton 
yarn.  Silk  manufactures  are  also  well  advanced.  Some  $50,000,000 
worth  of  silk,  raw  and  manufactured,  are  exported  annually.  A  few 
woolen  mills  are  in  operation,  though  Japan  has  no  home  supply 
of  wool.  The  Japanese  artisans  have  long  been  famous  for  their 
design  and  execution,  both  in  wood  and  metal.  Their  work  in 
paper  is  also  of  a  high  quality.  These,  however,  are  all  domestic 
industries,  and  are  probably  destined  to  play  but  a  small  part  in 
the  future  commercial  development  of  the  country. 


328  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

215.  Commerce.  —  Japan  is  a  large  importer  of  manufactured  goods 
and  of  certain  raw  materials  for  manufacture.  Iron  and  steel,  raw  cotton 
and  cotton  seed,  wool,  flax,  hemp,  and  jute  textiles,  machinery,  fire- 
arms, sugar,  and  petroleum  are  among  the  imports  of  greatest  value. 
The  chief  exports  are  raw  silk  and  silk  manufactures,  cotton  yarn,  tea, 
coal,  and  copper.  The  manufacture  of  matches  is  a  growing  industry  ; 
already  these  have  displaced  Swedish  matches  in  neighboring  countries. 
Porcelains  and  earthenware,  matting,  straw  plaits,  pigments,  and  rice 
are  among  the  export  articles  of  minor  importance. 

Great  Britain  heads  the  Japanese  import  list,  with  the  United 
States  a  good  second,  followed  by  British  India,  Germany  and 
China.  In  the  export  nations  the  United  States  stands  first,  tea 
forming  the  larger  proportion  of  the  value.  The  Japanese  are  wide- 
awake to  the  advantages  ,of  foreign  trade,  and  have  established  an 
Imperial  Commercial  Museum  for  forwarding  the  interests  of 
Japanese  commerce.  The  Empire  offers  a  wide  field  for  the  intro- 
duction of  foreign  goods,  and  since  the  Japanese  are  favorable  to 
United  States'  materials  and  manufactures,  there  is  every  reason  why 
American  merchants  may  hope  to  introduce  their  goods,  especially  by 
catering  to  native  taste.  For  instance,  by  the  placing  of  durable 
labels  of  fancy  design  on  all  small  wares,  the  foreign  merchant  takes 
an  important  step  in  securing  trade.  American  goods  are  finding  a 
growing  market  in  Japan.  The  American  locomotive  has  proved  its 
superiority,  and  has  been  introduced  successfully.  Raw  cotton  from 
the  United  States  has  gained  an  important  place  in  Japanese  manu- 
facture, and  there  is  an  increasing  use  of  American  flour,  railroad 
iron,  hardware  (nails,  bolts,  and  screws),  and  machinery  for  cotton 
spinning,  mining,  paper  making,  and  dynamos  for  electric  purposes. 
All  together,  Japan  is  a  thoroughly  progressive  nation ;  the  popula- 
tion is  thrifty  and  industrious,  and  labor  is  cheap.  The  resources 
of  the  country  are  sufficient  to  insure  future  notable  industrial  and 
commercial  development.  The  United  States'  trade  with  Japan  will 
be  greatly  stimulated  by  the  opening  of  an  Isthmian  Canal. 


Japan 


329 


The  roads  and  means  of  conveyance  are  still  somewhat  primitive. 
Railroads  are  in  operation  in  certain  parts,  amounting  to  a  total 
length  of  3915  miles.  The  coastwise  traffic  is  still  largely  carried 
on  by  junks.  Oversea  trade  is  from  the  treaty  ports  of  which  there 
are  several.  Yokohama  and  Kobe  hold  the  largest  volume  of  foreign 
trade.  Tokio,  the  capital,  is  also  a  treaty  port.  Nagasaki,  command- 
ing a  fine  harbor  on  the  southwest  of  Kiusiu  Island,  is  near  the  coal 
fields,  and  is  an  important  coaling  port.  Osaka  is  another  open 
port.  Hakodate,  on  the  island  of  Yezo,  is  the  chief  trade  center  of 
the  north,  especially  in  fishing  and  coal.  There  are  also  a  number 
of  other  minor  treaty  ports. 

In  1901,  7489  vessels  traded  at  different  Japanese  ports,  2998  of 
which  were  foreign  steamships,  and  3042  Japanese  steamships.  Of 
the  total  number  of  foreign  vessels  entering  Japanese  ports  in  1901, 
only  about  6  per  cent  were  American,  while  53  per  cent  were 
British,  and  more  than  12  per  cent  German.  These  facts  are  signifi- 
cant, and  indicate  the  need  of  establishing  trade  in  American  ships. 


COMMERCE   OF  JAPAN   (1900) 
Approximated  in  Millions  of  Yen 


IMPORT  AND  EXPORT 

PERCENTAGE 
OF  TOTAL 

United  States   
Great  Britain    
China        
Hong-Kong      

115,000,000 
83,000,000 
62,000,000 
50,000,000 
32,000,000 

23-7 
I7.I 
I2.7 
10.3 
6.6 

32,000,000 

6.6 

27,000,000 

re 

I9,OOO,OOO 

4.0 

Russian  Asia     ....... 
All  other  countries   

9,000,000 
56,000,000 

2.O 

n-5 

Total      

485,000,000 

33O  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

The  island  of  Formosa  produces  a  variety  of  tropical  products, 
chief  among  which  are  camphor,  tea,  rice,  sugar,  and  hemp.  The 
oversea  trade  is  carried  on  mainly  by  the  British. 

SUGGESTED  QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

257.  What  is  the  total  extent  of  the  Japanese  Empire  (including  Formosa) 
from  north  to  south? 

258.  Compare  the  Japanese  Islands  with  the  British  Isles  with  regard  to  their 
relation  to  the  continent.     Has  the  separation  been  of  advantage?     Why? 

259.  What  is  meant  by  "the  occidentalizing  of  Japan,"  and  how  have  its  re- 
sults been  manifested  ? 

260.  Give  an  account  of  the  industrial  and  commercial  development  of  Japan 
during  the  past  thirty  years. 

261.  What  are  the  present  relations  existing  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan? 

262.  What  are  some  of  the  distinctive  industries  of  the  Japanese?     What  is 
the  nature  of  their  workmanship  ? 

263.  What  has  been  one  favorite  and  successful  method  by  which  Japan  has 
introduced  western  civilization? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*Mason,  Japan,  Chapter  XXIX.      The  International  Geography. 

**  Commercial  Japan  in  iqoo.   Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  for 

December,  1901. 

Murray's  Handbook  to  Japan.     London  ;   fourth  edition,  1895. 
**  The  Statesman's   Yearbook. 

Droppers,  Economic  Transition  in  Japan.     The  Nation,  Vol.  LXVI. 
**  Commerce  of  Japan.    United  States'  Consular  Report,  November,  1902. 


CHAPTER   XXXI 


INDIA 

216.  Physical  Features.  —  The  Peninsula  of  Hindustan,  is  a 
well-defined  physical  region.  The  great  Himalaya  range,  and  the 
mountainous  frontier  of  Afghanistan,  wall  it  off  from  the  rest  of 
the  Asiatic  continent  on  the  north,  northeast,  and  northwest;  the 
Assam-Burmese  ranges  define  its  boundary  in  the  extreme  east, 
while  the  mountain 
border  of  Baluchistan, 
beyond  the  Indus  Val- 
ley, marks  its  western 
limit.  Everywhere  else 
it  is  peninsular  and  en- 
compassed by  the  sea. 
Within  the  area  three 
well-marked  physical 
regions  are  recognized: 
(i)  the  hill  country 
and  mountain  slopes 
of  the  north;  (2)  the 
Deccan  table-land  of 
the  peninsula  proper ; 

and  (3)  between  these  two,  the  plains  formed  by  the  Ganges-Brah- 
maputra system  in  the  east,  and  the  Indus  in  the  west.  The 
Deccan  table-land  is  a  rugged  country  flanked  by  mountain  ranges. 

The  climate,  except  in  the  extreme  northwest,  is  essentially 
tropical  in  character,  and  is  dominated  by  the  monsoon.  (See 
p.  14.)  The  southwest  monsoon  (May  to  October)  causes  a 


RAINFALL  OF  INDIA,  SHOWING  THE  EFFECTS  OF  THE 
SOUTHWEST  MONSOON 


332  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

heavy  rainfall  on  the  western  side,  and  generally  throughout  Bengal, 
central  India,  and  the  Ganges  Plain.  The  heaviest  rainfall  in  the 
world  occurs  in  this  region.  India  is  entirely  dependent  for  its  rain 
upon  the  southwest  monsoon,  the  failure  of  which  causes  the  most 
appalling  famines,  with  far-reaching  economic  effects.  A  desert 
region  exists  in  the  northwest  as  a  result  of  the  great  mass  of 
continental  highland  which  deprives  the  winds  of  their  moisture. 

217.  Resources  and  Industries.  —  India  is  essentially  an  agricul- 
tural country,  the  vast  population  being  engaged  mainly  in  culti- 
vating the  soil.  As  a  result  of  the  uncertain  nature  of  the  monsoon, 
and  the  dryness  of  the  land  when  not  under  its  influence,  irrigation 
is  resorted  to  over  wide  areas.  The  rain  water  is  collected  in  tanks 
for  future  distribution,  and  in  many  districts  canals  have  been  built 
for  taking  the  water  from  rivers.  The  average  density  of  popula- 
tion throughout  India  is  upwards  of  180  per  square  mile.  The 
land  is  mainly  in  small  holdings ;  the  British  government  has  been 
active  in  its  endeavors  to  promote  agriculture  by  the  establishment 
of  experimental  farms,  schools  of  agriculture,  etc. 

Millet,  rice,  and  peas  (chick  peas)  are  the  staple  food  crops  of 
India.  Oil  seeds  of  several  kinds  are  also  largely  raised,  and 
wheat  forms  an  important  crop,  especially  in  the  Punjab  and  the 
northwest  Provinces.  Other  leading  crops  are  cotton,  tea,  jute, 
sugar  cane,  indigo,  and  tobacco.  Coffee  is  extensively  cultivated, 
and  the  cinchona  tree  is  grown  successfully  on  the  mountain  slopes, 
and  quinine  forms  an  item  in  the  export  list.  Pepper,  lac,  and 
silk  are  also  produced.  The  opium  poppy  is  grown  in  the  Ganges 
Valley  and  in  central  India.  Cattle  are  also  raised  extensively 
in  the  drier  regions  of  the  northwestern  part.  Many  valuable  prod- 
ucts are  obtained  from  the  forests,  which  are  under  careful  gov- 
ernment supervision.  Teak  is  the  most  widely  used  tree  for  timber 
purposes.  Oak  is  found  in  the  Punjab,  and  the  deodar  cedar  and 
other  conifers  on  the  Himalaya  slopes.  The  cocoanut  palm  and 
the  bamboo,  supply  a  great  variety  of  useful  materials  for  the 


DENSITY  OF  POPULATION 

AND 

PRODUCTS  OF  INDIA. 


INDIAN  OCEAN 


334  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

native  peoples,  and  the  mango  and  other  tropical  fruits  are  largely 
used  as  food. 

India  possesses  valuable  mineral  resources.  Coal  is  abundant, 
especially  in  Bengal  and  central  India,  but  is  only  partially  devel- 
oped. Iron  is  also  found  in  large  quantities  throughout  the  moun- 
tainous districts,  and  the  smelting  of  the  ores  with  charcoal  is  a 
native  industry.  Gold  and  copper  are  also  abundant.  Pure  salt- 
peter (nitrate  of  potash)  is  found  in  the  plains  region  and  rock 
salt  in  the  Punjab,  where  it  forms  vast  hills. 

The  native  manufacturing  industries  of  India  are  mostly  handi- 
crafts, but  these  have  greatly  declined,  owing  to  the  introduction 
of  cheap  factory  goods,  especially  certain  textiles  from  Europe ; 
modern  factories  have  also  been  established  in  many  parts  where 
hand-weaving  and  spinning  were  formerly  practiced.  Modern 
methods  are  now  employed  on  a  large  scale,  in  silk,  jute,  and 
cotton  manufacture.  Carpets,  rugs,  and  shawls  are  still  exported, 
many  of  the  latter  (the  celebrated  cashmere  shawls)  coming  from 
Kashmir  and  the  Punjab.  Indian  artisans  have  long  been  famous 
for  exquisite  work  in  metals  and  ivory. 

218.  Commerce.  —  India  is  a  British  dependency,  under  the 
rule  of  a  Viceroy  or  Governor  General.  The  commerce  of  the 
country  has  prospered  in  the  past  half  century,  the  oversea  trade 
showing  a  remarkably  steady  increase  since  1834.  Great  Britain 
holds  the  largest  share  of  the  trade  both  in  exports  and  imports. 
China  and  Germany  each  take  a  larger  proportion  of  Indian 
produce  than  do  other  countries  outside  of  Great  Britain.  The 
imports  of  India  from  the  United  States  amount  to  only  about  one- 
seventh  of  the  value  of  the  exports  which  the  Empire  sends  to  this 
country.  Of  the  total  imports  of  India  in  1902,  70  per  cent  was 
from  Great  Britain  and  the  British  colonies,  while  the  United  States 
stood  eighth  in  the  list  with  only  1.4  per  cent.  Of  Indian  exports 
in  the  same  year  6.9  per  cent  went  to  the  United  States. 

Among  the  chief  items  of  value  on   the  Indian  export  list  may 


India 


335 


be  mentioned  rice,  raw  cotton,  oil  seeds,  opium,  hides,  raw  jute, 
tea,  indigo,  coffee,  lac,  woods,  etc.  Cotton  manufactures  form  a 
large  proportion  of  the  value  of  imports,  which  include  also  a 
variety  of  raw  and  manufactured  articles.  The  bulk  of  the  rice 
shipment  is  from  the  provinces  of  Bombay  and  Madras,  that  of 
wheat  from  Bengal,  Bombay,  and  Sind,  opium  mainly  from  Bengal 
and  Bombay,  indigo  from  Bengal  and  Madras,  cotton  from  Madras 
and  Sind,  and  seeds  from  Bombay  and  Bengal. 

Calcutta,  on  the  Hugli  branch  of  the  Ganges  delta  some  thirty 
miles  from  its  mouth,  is  the  largest  city  in  India,  with  a  population 
of  over  a  million ;  it  is  the 
chief  trade  center  of  the  east- 
ern portion  of  the  Empire. 
About  41.5  per  cent  of  the 
total  imports  of  India  enter  at 
Calcutta.  Bombay,  the  sec- 
ond city  in  size,  located  on 
an  island  close  to  the  main- 
land on  the  western  side  of 
the  peninsula  and  command- 
ing a  fine  harbor,  is  the  chief 
port  for  the  oversea  trade 
with  Europe  via  the  Suez  COMMENCE  OF  INDIA  (1900),  APPROXIMATED 
Canal;  34  per  cent  of  the  IN  MILLIONS  OF  RUPEES 

import  trade  is .  through    this  Tota1'  I-689.000-000  RuPees 

port.1  Bombay  ships  a  large  quantity  of  wheat  from  the  Punjab  and 
Northwest  Provinces.  Karachi,  a  seaport  near  the  northwestern 
border  of  the  peninsula,  does  a  large  trade  in  exporting  wheat. 
Madras,  on  the  east  coast,  is  also  a  port  of  considerable  importance 
in  the  oversea  trade  of  India.  An  overland  trade  of  considerable 
value  is  carried  on  with  neighboring  countries,  principally  through  the 
northwestern  mountain  passes. 

l  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance ;  December,  1902,  p.  1680. 


UNITED  KINGDOM 

801 

—         47..5# 

CHINA 

142 

8.5* 

GERMANY 

118 

6.5* 

STRAIT  SETTLEMENTS 

91 

5.5* 

UNITED  STATES 

84 

5* 

FRANCE 

"BELGIUM  

71 

—  TS  — 

—  £k 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

—SIT- 

—  =  wxt 

CEYLON 

55 

=            3.5% 

OTHER  COUNTRIES 

210 

—         12.5/o 

336  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

There  are  about  26,000  miles  of  railroad  in  operation  throughout 
the  Empire,  all  the  important  productive  districts  and  trade  centers 
being  thus  connected  with  the  large  cities  on  the  coast.  Canals 
afford  lines  of  communication,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  peninsula*  The  Ganges,  Brahmaputra,  and  Indus  form  natural 
highways  for  commerce,  though  on  the  latter  river  navigation  is 
somewhat  difficult,  owing  to  shallows  and  rapids. 

219.  Burma.  —  Burma  is  a   British   province   in   Indo-China  or 
Farther  India,  and  lies  mainly  in  the  basin  of   the  Irrawaddy.     It 
is  largely  forest-covered  and  supplies  the  bulk  of  the  Indian  teak 
export.      Rice  and  rubber  are   other  important  products.      There 
are  in  Burma  several  good  coal  fields,  and  a  supply  of  petroleum 
which  has  considerable  value.     Jade,  rubies,  and  gold  are  mined  in 
upper  Burma. 

Rangoon,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Irrawaddy,  is  the  chief  port  of 
Burma.  Mandalay,  on  the  same  river  in  the  interior,  is  also  a 
trade  center  of  some  importance.  The  country  is  in  a  backward 
state  as  regards  means  of  communication. 

220.  Ceylon.  —  Ceylon    is    a    crown    colony    of    Great   Britain, 
with  an  area  of  25,000  square  miles,   and  an  average  density  of 
population  of  about   140   to   the  square  mile.     The  southern  por- 
tion of  the   island  is   mountainous,  while    the  northern  portion   is 
a  heavily  wooded  plain.      The   rainfall  is  abundant  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  monsoons ;  those  from  the  northeast  and  southwest 
both  bringing  rain  to  Ceylon.     Rice  and  cocoanuts  are  grown  ex- 
tensively on  the  lower  mountain  slopes  and  in  the  level  plain  coun- 
try.     On   the  upper  slopes  and  terraces,  European  residents  have 
established  large  tea,  coffee,  cinnamon,  cinchona,  cacao,  and  tobacco 
plantations.     Live  stock  is  also  raised.     Of  the  mineral  products, 
graphite  (which  occurs  in  a  remarkably  pure  state)   is  the  most  im- 
portant.     There  are  also  mines  of  precious  stones,  and  the  pearl 
fishery  has  been  extensively  carried  on  along  the  coast.     Colombo 
is  the  chief  seaport  and  trade  center. 


India  337 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

264.  Consider  the  geographical  relations  of  India  to  the  rest  of  Asia. 

265.  Compare  the  native  people  of  India  with  those  of  China. 

266.  Why  are  famines  so  disastrous  in  India?     (See  p.  149,  Question  92.) 

267.  Consider  the  introduction  and  present  status  of  tea  culture  in  India  and 
Ceylon. 

268.  Compare  the  total  population  of  India  with  that  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland. 

269.  In  what  direction  does  the  best  commercial  development  of  India  lie? 
What  is  the  "  caste  "  system,  and  why  does  it  persist  in  India  ? 

270.  What  influence  have  the  monsoons  had  on  the  trade  of  India? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 


* India  and  Ceylon,  Chapter  XXVI.      The  International  Geography. 

**  Commercial  India  in  1902.      Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  ; 

December,  1902.     Treasury  Department. 
* Foreign  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States. 
**  The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 


CHAPTER   XXXII 

OTHER  ASIATIC  COUNTRIES 

221.  Asiatic  Turkey.  —  Under  Asiatic  Turkey  are  embraced  the 
countries  of  Anatolia,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia.  Anatolia  (Asia 
Minor)  is  the  western  peninsular  extension  of  the  Iranian  Plateau, 
between  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  Seas.  The  surface  is 
rugged  and  mountainous  and  there  are  few  rivers.  A  railroad  runs 
from  the  Bosporus  into  the  interior,  and  another  from  the  seaport  of 
Smyrria.  Syria  (including  Palestine)  lies  south  of  Anatolia,  border- 
ing on  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  and  consists  of  a  coastal  strip 
backed  by  mountain  ranges.  Mesopotamia  (literally  the  land  be- 
tween the  rivers)  is  the  basin  of  the  Euphrates-Tigris  drainage, 
the  waters  of  which  rise  in  the  Anatolian  Plateau. 

Asiatic  Turkey  has  in  general  a  remarkably  fertile  soil,  and  the 
people  are  mainly  engaged  in  agriculture  ;  but  methods  of  agriculture 
and  means  of  communication  are  in  a  backward  state.  The  most 
important  products  of  the  country  are  various  cereal  crops,  tobacco, 
cotton,  olives,  figs,  almonds  and  various  other  fruits,  wine,  grapes, 
valonia,  opium,  coffee,  madder,  and  gums.  Fishing  is  extensively 
carried  on,  the  Mediterranean  sponge  fisheries  yielding  a  large 
return.  Mother-of-pearl  is  obtained  on  the  Red  Sea  coast  and  in  the 
Persian  Gulf.  There  are  many  valuable  mineral  deposits  throughout 
the  dependent  provinces,  but  as  yet  little  has  been  done  in  the  way 
of  their  development.  Chrome,  silver-lead,  zinc,  manganese,  anti- 
mony and  copper  ores,  corundum  (emery),  asphalt,  meerschaum, 
borax,  coal,  and  lignite  are  among  the  more  important  mineral  prod- 
ucts. The  manufacturing  industries  are  mainly  domestic  in  character 

338 


Other  Asiatic  Countries  339 

and  are  carried  on  by  hand.  The  celebrated  "  mohair "  cloth  is 
woven  from  the  fleece  of  the  Angora  goat.  Carpets  and  rugs  woven 
on  hand  looms  are  prominent  in  Turkish  industry  and  commerce. 
The  much  prized  Oriental  rugs  are  manufactured  almost  exclusively 
in  Turkey,  and  the  names  by  which  rugs  are  known  to  the  connois- 
seurs, are  the  names  of  cities  and  provinces  in  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
Constantinople  is  the  great  Oriental  rug  market  of  the  world.  Vari- 
ous domestic  articles  of  beaten  copper  and  turned  brass  are  also  man- 
ufactured. Silk  production  was  at  one  time  a  prominent  industry, 
but  has  fallen  off,  owing  to  a  disease  which  destroyed  the  silk  worms. 

Smyrna  is  the  chief  port  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  next  to  Constanti- 
nople the  largest  city  of  the  Empire.  It  is  the  great  opium  mart  of 
the  world,  and  is  also  noted  for  its  shipments  of  carpets,  rugs,  tobacco, 
etc.  Beirut  is  another  Mediterranean  port  of  some  prominence. 
Aleppo  is  an  important  inland  trade  center.  Trebizond  and  Samsun 
are  Black  Sea  ports.  Mosul  and  Bagdad,  on  the  Tigris  (with  a  large 
transit  trade)  and  Bassora  (the  point  of  transshipment  between  river 
and  sea  traffic),  above  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  are  prominent 
trade  centers  of  the  Mesopotamian  region.  The  last-named  town 
is  noted^  for  its  shipment  of  dates. 

The  island  of  Cyprus  produces  cotton,  cereals,  olive  oil,  wines, 
leather,  sponges,  salt,  etc.  It  was  formerly  an  important  source  of 
copper  supply,  and  from  this  was  derived  its  name.  The  government 
of  Cyprus  is  administered  by  Great  Britain. 

The  trade  of  Turkey  as  a  whole  (both  European  and  Asiatic 
Turkey)  is  largely  with  Great  Britain,  Austria,  France,  and  Russia. 
The  United  States  holds  a  very  small  share  in  the  import  trade  of 
Turkey ;  the  proportion  of  Turkish  goods  imported  by  this  country 
is  much  greater.  Our  purchases  from  Turkey  are  mainly  Oriental 
rugs  and  carpets,  with  other  textile,  metal,  and  leather  goods  that  are 
handmade. 

222.  Arabia.  —  The  peninsula  of  Arabia  is  mainly  a  desert  table- 
land surrounded  by  a  broken  rim  of  mountain  ranges  and  fringed  by 


34°  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

a  narrow  strip  of  low-lying  coast  land.  The  surface  of  the  table-land 
is  rather  rugged  ;  ia  the  central  part  (Nedjed)  is  a  pasture  region, 
the  deep  valleys  between  the  ridges  being  covered  with  gardens  and 
plantations  made  fruitful  by  irrigation.  The  country  is  supplied  with 
wells,  but  there  are  no  rivers  of  any  size.  The  narrow  western  por- 
tion of  Arabia  along  the  Red  Sea  includes  the  two  Turkish  provinces 
of  Hedjaz  and  Yemen.  Aden,  on  the  southwest  coast,  and  the  island 
of  Perim  in  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  are  British  settlements. 
Oman  is  an  independent  state  in  the  southeastern  extremity  of 
Arabia.  The  chief  products  of  the  different  sections  are  coffee  (from 
the  fertile  Yemen  district),  cereals,  vegetables  and  fruits,  senna,  indigo, 
dates,  balsam,  henna,  incense,  betel,  etc.  Goats,  sheep,  cattle,  camels, 
horses  (the  celebrated  Arabian  stock),  and  asses  are  raised  on  the 
pasture  lands.  Hodeida  is  the  chief  port  of  Yemen  and  is  noted  for 
its  coffee  shipment.  Mocha,  a  seaport  farther  south,  has  given  its 
name  to  the  Yemen  coffee  export.  Muscat  is  the  chief  port  and 
trade  center  of  Oman,  its  exports  being  dates,  pearls,  and  mother- 
of-pearl,  fruits,  fish,  salt,  etc.  The  town  is  in  weekly  communication 
with  Bombay. 

223.  Persia. — The  Plateau  of  Iran  is  embraced  by  modern  Per- 
sia. It  forms  a  mountainous  table-land,  about  one-third  of  the  sur- 
face being  desert.  The  higher  mountain  ranges  increase  the  rainfall 
which  is  favorable  to  agriculture.  Of  the  two  principal  rivers,  one 
flows  from  the  central  mountain  ranges  into  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the 
other  into  the  Caspian  Sea.  These  have  an  important  bearing  on  the 
existing  commerce  with  India  and  Russia.  The  latter  country  is  pro- 
jecting a  line  of  railroad  through  Persia  to  connect  with  its  Trans- 
caspian  road.  Several  telegraph  lines  which  operate  in  the  interests 
of  the  Indian  government,  run  across  Persia. 

Among  the  chief  productions  may  be  mentioned  silk  (southwest 
of  the  Caspian),  gum  tragacanth,  wheat,  barley,  rice,  fruits,  cotton, 
wool,  tobacco,  and  opium.  The  coastwise  fisheries,  notably  the  pearl 
fisheries  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  are  important.  There  are  many  valuable 


Other  Asiatic  Countries  341 

mineral  deposits  which  lack  development,  owing  to  the  absence  of 
near-by  markets  and  difficulty  of  transportation  in  the  present  back- 
ward state  of  the  country.  Salt  is  found  abundantly  in  pits ;  naph- 
tha also  occurs  in  the  western  part.  Precious  stones  are  mined  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  Persia. 

Tabriz  is  the  chief  commercial  center  of  the  country,  in  the  north- 
western part.  Bushire  and  Bendar-Abbassi  are  ports  on  the  Persian 
Gulf.  There  are  also  several  Caspian  ports  of  some  commercial 
prominence.  The  principal  trade  of  Persia  is  with  Russia  and  Great 
Britain,  both  in  exports  and  imports ;  the  former  country  has  one-half 
of  the  total  value  of  Persian  commerce. 

224.  Afghanistan.  —  This  mountainous  country  is  an  independent 
state,  lying  between  the  frontiers  of  British  India  and  Russia.     The 
population  consists  of  numerous   partially  civilized  tribes,  and  the 
commerce  of  the  country  is  an  overland  traffic  carried  on  between 
neighboring    countries.       Being    entirely    an    inland    country   and 
hemmed  in   by  high   mountain   ranges,   transportation  is   difficult ; 
communication  is   principally  by  wagon  road  over  high  mountain 
passes,  such  as  the  Khyber  and  Gomul  passes  into  the  Punjab,  the 
Bolan  Pass  into  the  Sind  Province  of  India,  and  the  Bamian  Pass 
through  the  Hindu  Kush  range.1     The  cereals  are  raised,  also  peas, 
beans,  rice,  and  a  great  variety  of  temperate    zone  fruits.      Castor 
oil,  madder,  and  assafoetida  are  also  produced  in  large  quantities,  the 
latter  forming  a  considerable  item  of  export.     Sheep-skin  goods,  silks, 
felts,  carpets,  and  textiles  of  camel's  and  goat's  hair  are  among  the 
chief  industries.     The  country  is  said  to  be  rich  in  mineral  deposits 
and  precious  stones,  notably  lapis  lazuli.     Kabul  and  Herat  are  the 
chief  towns  and  trade  centers. 

Baluchistan,  a  wild,  sparsely  inhabited  desert  tract,  is  under  British 
control  and*  is  unimportant  commercially. 

225.  Indo-Chinese  Countries.  —  The   Indo-Chinese    Peninsula,    or 

1  The  Bolan  and  Nari  passes  are  traversed  by  railroads ;  see  Chisholm,  Handbook 
of  Commercial  Geography,  p.  316. 


342  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

Farther  India,  lies  wholly  within  the  tropics  in  the  monsoon  region. 
Besides  Burma,  already  considered,  the  peninsula  embraces  the  King- 
dom of  Siam,  the  French  possessions  of  Tongking,  Annam,  Cambodia, 
and  Lower  Cochin  China,  and  the  Shan  states  (under  British  in- 
fluence). The  two  main  river  basins  of  the  peninsula  are  the 
Menam  and  the  Mekong.  Rice,  pepper,  fish  (both  salt  and  dried), 
teak  (the  cutting  of  which  is  under  British  control),  sesame,  cattle, 
and  various  tropical  fruits  are  among  the  important  Siamese  prod- 
ucts. Bangkok,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Menam  River  where  it 
empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  is  the  port  of  the  country,  but  is 
under  the  disadvantage  of  having  to  "  lighter "  all  goods  by  flat, 
shallow  draught  boats,  owing  to  a  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
The  commerce  of  the  country  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners, 
chiefly  Chinese  immigrants.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on 
with  China  (Province  of  Yunnan)  through  the  Shan  states  in  the 
north.  Siam  is  rich  in  mineral  deposits,  including  copper,  gold,  tin, 
coal  and  iron,  antimony,  zinc,  quicksilver,  manganese,  and  in  certain 
localities,  diamonds,  rubies,  and  sapphires.  Numerous  concessions 
have  been  granted  to  foreign  mining  companies. 

The  productions  of  French  Indo-China  are  varied,  and  include 
raw  silk,  pepper,  cinnamon,  rice,  betel,  indigo,  coffee,  tobacco, 
cotton,  salt  fish,  metals,  etc.  Coal  is  mined  in  some  parts,  and 
factories  for  cotton  manufacture  have  been  established  at  certain 
places.  Tourane  (Annam),  Hanoi,  and  Hongay  (Tongking)  are  the 
chief  ports  of  French  Indo-China. 

226.  Straits  Settlements.  —  This  is  a  British  crown  colony  at  the 
end  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  includes  Singapore  (island  and  town  of 
the  same  name),  the  island  of  Penang,  Malacca,  Wellesley  Province, 
and  three  territories  under  British  protection  on  the  mainland  of 
the  peninsula.  Singapore  is  the  commercial  center  and*  has  a  large 
transit  trade.  The  chief  agricultural  products  of  the  territory  are  pep- 
per, rice,  sugar,  and  tapioca.  Tin  is  the  most  important  commercial 
product,  vast  deposits  being  found  in  the  mountains  of  the  peninsula,. 


Oilier  Asiatic  Countries  343 

and  in  adjacent  islands.  The  metal  forms  50  per  cent  of  the  exports 
from  Singapore.  Other  exports  of  value  are  spices,  gums,  gambier, 
rattans,  tapioca,  sago,  copra,  etc.  Singapore  is  a  port  of  call,  and  up- 
wards of  8900  vessels  (not  including  native  shipping)  entered  and 
cleared  at  the  Straits  Settlements  in  1901.-  Rice,  cotton  goods, 
opium,  fish,  coal,  tobacco,  and  petroleum  are  among  the  chief  items 
of  import.  A  railway  and  steam  ferries  connect  Singapore  with  near- 
by districts. 

227.  The  Malay  Archipelago.  — This  region  includes  the  islands  of 
Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  Celebes,  the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands,  and 
other  smaller  islands  of  the  group.  The  larger  number  belong  to 
Holland  and  are  known  as  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Java  and  the 
near-by  island  of  Madura  are  the  most  important  commercially.  All 
of  the  islands  are  intensely  volcanic,  which  feature  adds  greatly  to 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  They  are  all  essentially  tropical  in  character 
and  lie  within  the  monsoon  region.  Coffee  is  the  chief  product  of 
Java,  though  tea,  cinchona,  indigo,  tobacco,  rice,  and  sugar  cane  are 
also  cultivated.  Coal  is  mined  in  some  localities,  and  there  are  valu- 
able tin  mines  on  the  islands  of  Banka  and  Billiton,  the  bulk  of  the 
product  being  sent  to  Singapore.  The  productive  lands  and  the 
commerce  of  the  islands  are  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  gov- 
ernment. Batavia,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Java,  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial center.  Surabaya,  a  port  in  the  northeast,  is  in  the  center  of 
a  large  sugar  cane  district.  Outside  of  the  government  possessions 
the  land  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  Europeans  and  Chinese. 

Sumatra  has  large  tobacco  and  coffee  plantations,  the  former  prod- 
uct being  prominent  in  the  world's  markets.  The  volcanic  soil  of 
certain  districts  is  especially  adapted  to  its  cultivation.  Bencoolen 
and  Padang  are  the  chief  ports  of  the  island.  The  Moluccas  or 
Spice  Islands  (one  of  the  objective  points  in  the  era  of  discovery) 
are  noted  for  the  production  of  spices,  especially  cloves  and  nutmeg ; 
the  latter  are  grown  chiefly  in  Amboyna  and  the  Banda  Islands. 

British  North  Borneo  furnishes  a  variety  of  forest  products  which 


344  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

are  important  commercially.  Sago  is  the  chief  product  cultivated, 
though  considerable  tobacco  is  grown ;  coal  and  gold  deposits  are 
found  in  the  region.  The  peculiar  edible  bird's  nest  (a  species  of 
:wift  that  builds  in  caves),  which  is  esteemed  a  great  luxury  by  the 
Chinese,  is  found  in  large  numbers  in  a  cave  in  this  region  and  is  an 
important  export.  The  chief  trade  center  and  port  is  Sandakan, 
which  commands  a  fine  harbor  on  the  east. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS   AND   TOPICS 

271.  Account  for  the  decadence  of  the  regions  that  have  come  under  the 
control  of  Turkey. 

272.  Why  are  the  products  of  the  looms  of  southwest  Asia  so  famous? 

273.  What  are  the  characteristic  features  of  the  Mesopotamian  Valley?    Com- 
pare the  present  of  this  region  with  its  past. 

274.  Is  Cyprus  a  European  or  Asiatic  island?    Trace  the  successive  changes  in 
its  colonial  history.     Why  so  many  changes  ? 

275.  What  part  of  Arabia  was  long  known  as  "  Happy  Arabia  "  ?     Why? 

276.  What  position  does  Singapore  occupy  in  the  trade  between  Europe  and 
eastern  Asia  ? 

277.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  Levant  trade  "  ?     What  is  the  character  of  this 
trade? 

278.  Compare  the  coffee-producing  regions  of  Arabia  with  those  of  Brazil. 

279.  What  is  the  commercial  importance  of  the  date  palm,  and  what  regions 
are  suited  to  its  cultivation? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

**  The  International  Geography,  Chapters  XXIV,  XXV,  XXVII,  and  XXX. 

*  Wallace,  The  Malay  Archipelago.     London;  New  Edition,  1890. 

James  Bryce,  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat.     London;   Fourth  Edition,  1896. 

Murray's  Handbook  for  Asia  Minor.      London  ;    1895. 

*Norman,  Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East. 

**  The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 


COMMERCIAL  AFRICA 

228.  Regional  Geography.  —  Africa  is  peninsular  rather  than  con- 
tinental ;  its  fundamental  structural  feature  is  that  of  a  large  table- 
land with  a  narrow  coastal  margin  like  that  of  Arabia  and  the  Deccan. 
The  coast  line  is  strikingly  even,  presenting  no  great  inlets,  and 
the  large  rivers,  in 
their  descent  from 
the  higher  plateau 
to  the  lower  coast- 
plain  region,  form  a 
series  of  dangerous 
rapids  which  i  mpede 
navigation.  The  de- 
termining feature  in 
African  drainage  is 
the  presence  of  a 
line  of  elevation 
along  the  eastern 
side  of  the  contin- 
ent, extending  from 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez 
southward  to  beyond 
latitude  10°  S.,  where  it  turns  westward  across  the  narrower  portion  of 
the  land  mass.  This  line  of  water  parting  throws  the  drainage  into 
two  primary  areas,  —  that  of  the  northern-central  (by  far  the  larger 
of  the  two)  with  such  great  rivers  as  the  Nile  and  the  Kongo, 
flowing  into  the  Atlantic  drainage,  and  the  smaller  southern  part, 

345 


is.  TroDTrnfr^ra*-  ^ ~r~-\~\ 


Equator  _ 

CD  Deserts 


VEGETATION  FEATURES  OF  AFRICA 


346  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

with  rivers  like  the  Zambesi  and  the  Limpopo,  flowing  into  the 
Indian  Ocean.1  The  Niger  basin  results  from  a  secondary  line  of 
elevation  in  the  west. 

Africa  extends  thirty  degrees  on  either  side  of  the  equator. 
It  therefore  presents  a  central  tropical  climatic  zone  with  smaller 
northern  and  southern  regions  of  temperate  conditions.  The  most 
striking  feature  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  continent  is  the 
vast  stretch  of  deserts  (the  Sahara  and  Libyan)  which  belongs 
to  the  great  desert  belt  of  the  Old  World  (including  Arabia  and  the 
Central  Asian  deserts).  The  cause  of  this  arid  waste  of  shifting 
sands,  loose  rocks,  and  scanty  vegetation,  is  the  fact  that  in  winter 
it  is  a  high  pressure  area,  while  in  summer,  though  a  low  pressure 
prevails,  the  incoming  winds  are  dried,  and  thus  rendered  practically 
rainless  by  the  intensely  high  temperature.  The  small  amount  of 
rain  that  actually  does  fall  throughout  the  year  sinks  deeply  into 
the  thirsty  soil  and  reappears,  often  at  a  distance,  in  desert  wells 
or  springs,  marked  amid  the  surrounding  barren  waste  by  spots 
of  verdure  (oases). 

The  topography  of  Africa  determines,  in  the  main,  its  peculiar 
vegetation  features.  On  the  north  the  desert  passes  into  the 
steppe  region  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Mediterranean  or 
Barbary  States,  except  in  the  region  of  the  Atlas  Mountains.  On 
the  south  the  desert  likewise  passes  into  a  steppe  which  gradually 
merges  into  the  grass  lands  of  the  Sudan  and  East  African 
Highlands ;  this  is  a  region  of  broad  savannas  with  thickets  and 
clumps  of  trees  giving  to  the  landscape  a  park-like  appearance. 
Among  the  more  characteristic  forms  of  vegetation  in  this  region, 
are  the  baobab  tree,  numerous  varieties  of  acacia,  tree  lobelias, 
and  giant  groundsels.  Among  animals,  the  elephant  is  still  found 
in  the  wooded  districts  and  throughout  the  great  equatorial  forest ; 
herds  of  zebra,  giraffe,  antelopes  of  many  kinds,  and  other  big  game 
animals  wander  over  the  open  pasture  lands.  In  the  western  part 

1  Heawood,    The  International  Geography,  pp.  890-891. 


Commercial  Africa 


347 


of  the  continent  the  equatorial  rains  produce  a  zone  of  dense 
tropical  forests  which  extends  ten  degrees  north  and  south  of  the 
equator  and  disappears  toward  the  east  with  the  increasing  elevation 
of  the  land.  The  heavy  rainfall  of  this  region  is  a  result  of  the 
enormous  condensation  of  moisture  on  the  Ruwenzori  range  and 
the  high  plateaus  of  East  Central  Africa.  South  Africa  is  essentially  a 
region  of  grass  lands  and  steppes,  with  areas  of  decided  aridity  (the 
Kalahari  Desert) .  The  southeast  trades  bring  rain  along  the  eastern 
border  where  the  land  is  sufficiently  elevated. 

229.    The  Division  of    Africa.  —  The  future  development  of  the 
continent  is  in  the  hands  of  several  of  the  great  European  Powers. 
British     dominion     is 
established  over  a  wide 
area     in     South     and 
Central   Africa  (Cape 
Colony,      Natal,      the 
recently  acquired  Boer 
Republics,    Bechuana- 
land,  Rhodesia,  and  the 
Uganda,    British   East 
Africa,     and      Somali 
coast      protectorates), 
the  Niger  territories  in 
the  western  Sudan,  and 
districts   on   the   west 
coast.  Germany  claims 
territorial  rights  in  Ger- 
man East  Africa,  Ger- 
man Southwest  Africa,  Kameruns,  and  Togoland.     French  control  is 
confined  mainly  to  districts  on  the  west  coast,  in  the  western  Sudan, 
in  Obok  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  and  in  Algeria.     Italy  claims  dominion 
over    two    districts    in    the    northeast,   while    Portuguese   influence 
extends  along  the  east  coast  for  some  distance  on  either  side  of 


AFRICA. 
Density  of  Population 

I       1  Less  than  1  pec  Square  Mile." 
EZJ  1-25  "        " 


125-500 

everoOC 


348  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

the  Zambesi,  and  in  Angola  in  the  southwest.  The  Kongo  Free 
State  occupies  the  immense  area  of  the  Kongo  Basin  in  the  equa- 
torial forest  region.  Liberia  is  a  negro  Republic  (founded  with 
freed  American  slaves)  on  the  west  coast.  The  island  of  Zanzibar 
on  the  east  coast  is  under  the  rule  of  a  sultan,  though  practically 
within  the  sphere  of  British  influence.  Abyssinia  is  a  small  native 
kingdom  in  the  northeast.  Egypt  controls  a  large  area  of  the 
Nile  drainage,  including  the  eastern  or  Egyptian  Sudan.  Northern 
Africa  is  divided  into  several  states  (the  so-called  Barbary  States), 
of  which  Morocco  has  an  independent  sultanate,  Algiers  and  Tunisia 
are  French  colonies,  and  Tripoli  is  a  Turkish  protectorate. 

230.  Productions.  —  The  wide  variations  of  climate  throughout 
the  African  continent,  incident  to  the  extension  of  the  land  mass  on 
either  side  of  the  equator,  and  to  the  high  plateaus  of  the  eastern  and 
southern  portions,  give  rise  to  a  remarkable  variety  in  vegetable  pro- 
ductions. In  the  equatorial  forests  there  are  numerous  kinds  of 
rubber-producing  trees  and  vines.  The  crude  rubber  is  collected  by 
the  natives  and  brought  to  the  river  stations,  where  it  is  bought  by  the 
dealers  at  a  low  price.  This  African  rubber  is  of  the  finest  quality, 
and  the  supply  is  practically  unlimited,  since  the  gathering  of  the 
product  does  not  destroy  the  plant.  The  profit  of  the  African  rubber 
trade  is  said  to  be  higher  than  is  the  profit  of  South  African  gold 
mining.  Palm  oil  is  obtained  from  the  nut  of  a  species  of  palm  that 
grows  throughout  the  continent.  The  oil  is  exported  chiefly  for  use 
in  soap  manufacture,  as  a  cheap  lubricant,  and  for  culinary  purposes. 
Each  tree  yields  an  average  of  about  twenty  pounds  of  oil  yearly  and 
a  square  mile  of  savanna  land  supports  upwards  of  a  thousand  trees 
yielding  annually  ten  tons  of  oil. 

Africa  is  destined  to  be  an  important  source  of  the  future  lumber 
supply  of  the  world.  More  than  a  million  square  miles  in  the 
heart  of  the  continent  are  heavily  forested.  Among  the  more  impor- 
tant timber-producing  trees  are  the  African  teak  and  the  African 
mahogany,  ebony,  acacia,  ironwood,  bamboo,  redwood,  etc.  On 


KEY 

Railroads  in  Operation. 
-,  Railroads  Proposed. 
Head  of  Navigation. 

_ Steamship  Lines. 

Distances  for  Steamship  Lines 
are  in.  Nautical   Miles. 

SCALE  OF  STATUTE  MILES 


200      400      600      800    1.000    1,200 


TRADE  MAP  OF  AFRICA 


BORMAY  &  CO.,   N. 


350  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

the  higher  slopes  and  plateaus,  junipers,  yews,  and  other  conifers 
occur.  There  are  numerous  dyewoods ;  also  drug,  gum,  and  resin- 
yielding  plants  in  the  African  forests.  Among  gums  may  be  men- 
tioned copal,  shellac,  acacia,  and  incense.  A  vast  number  of  fiber 
plants  are  found  native  throughout  the  continent,  many  of  them 
being  suitable  for  rope-making.  Oil  seeds  of  various  sorts  abound, 
including  sesame,  castor  oil,  and  ground  nuts. 

Many  varieties  of  spices  are  abundant.  Coffee  grows  wild  in  many 
parts,  and  tobacco  has  spread  widely  by  native  cultivation.  Perennial 
cotton  grows  in  some  localities,  and  the  sugar  cane  nourishes  in  the 
lower  valleys  and  coast  lands.  The  soil  and  climate  over  wide  areas 
are  well  adapted  for  cereals  and  other  temperate  zone  food  plants. 
Maize  has  spread  by  cultivation  throughout  the  parts  of  the  continent 
where  there  is  sufficient  rainfall.  The  soils  over  wide  regions  are 
remarkably  fertile  and  this,  together  with  the  abundant  moisture, 
insures  enormous  crops,  100  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  being  an  ordi- 
nary yield.  At  least  two  crops  are  gathered  in  a  year.  Sorghum, 
millet,  and  eleusine  (a  grass,  the  grains  of  which  are  used  for  food) 
grow  in  like  profusion.  The  higher  plateau  lands  of  East  Central  and 
South  Africa  are  adapted  to  the  growth  of  wheat  and  oats. 

Various  root  plants,  like  the  manioc  or  mandioca  (which  yields  cas- 
sava meal  and  tapioca),  grow  abundantly  in  the  tropical  parts.  The 
potato  likewise  produces  indefinitely  without  the  need  of  replanting. 
Bananas,  plantains,  and  other  fruits  grow  in  rank  profusion.  It  is 
probable  that  tea,  coffee,  cacao,  rice,  beans  and  many  other  plants  will 
form  an  increasingly  important  feature  of  African  agriculture. 

Animal  products  are  abundant  and  of  various  kinds.  The  African 
elephant,  both  male  and  female,  furnish  tusks  of  valuable  ivory. 
The  teeth  of  the  hippopotamus  are  likewise  of  considerable  value  and 
form  an  item  of  export.  Zebras  and  a  variety  of  antelopes  give 
hides  of  value.  The  recent  efforts  toward  the  preservation  of  big 
game  in  the  central  African  States  will  greatly  enhance  the  trade 
in  native  animal  products  by  allowing  the  animals  to  increase  under 


Commercial  Africa  351 

normal  conditions.  As  Sir  Harry  Johnston  has  remarked,  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  African  elephant  (at  least  the  females)  and  the 
several  varieties  of  zebra,  should  not  be  domesticated.  Ostrich 
farming  and  the  export  of  feathers  is  a  growing  African  industry. 
Wild  bees  produce  quantities  of  honey  and  wax ;  in  some  instances 
the  bees  are  practically  domesticated  about  the  native  villages. 

The  grass  lands  of  East  Central  and  South  Africa  afford  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  pasture  regions  in  the  world,  and  sheep  and  cattle 
raising  are  destined  to  be  among  the  most  important  industries  in  the 
development  of  the  continent. 

The  immensity  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Africa  is  as  yet  scarcely 
realized.  The  resources  of  vast  areas  are  practically  untouched  and 
in  many  parts  unexplored.  In  the  upper  Zambesi  basin  there  is  an 
enormous  coal  field,  sometimes  reckoned  the  largest  in  the  world. 
Undoubtedly  this  coal  field  will  be  reached  by  the  railroad  within  the 
next  few  years.  Petroleum  is  obtained  from  mineral  springs  in 
several  localities.  Iron  ore  deposits  (chiefly  hematite  and  black 
magnetic  ore)  are  of  wide  extent,  and  the  natives  in  many  regions 
have  long  been  famous  as  primitive  iron  workers.  A  recent  writer 
records  the  discovery  of  a  solid  mountain  of  black  magnetic  iron  ore 
which  deflected  the  compass  at  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile.1 
Copper  is  very  abundant  throughout  Africa  and  is  in  wide  use  among 
the  native  peoples.  Gold  has  been  exploited  in  South  Africa,  but 
there  still  exists  an  enormous  extent  of  territory  in  which  the  precious 
metal  will  probably  be  found  in  rich  abundance.  The  African  gold 
output  now  reaches  a  large  yearly  total.  Diamonds  and  other 
precious  stones  are  also  found  in  great  abundance  in  various 
localities. 

231.   Commercial  Outlook.  —  Railroad  development  is  one  of  the 

factors  upon  which  the  commercial  future  of  the  continent  must  rely, 

for  the  rivers  as  already  observed,  are  not  continuously  navigable  to 

the  sea.     A  railroad  is  in  operation  around  the  rapids  of  the  Kongo, 

1  S.  P.  Verner,  Forum  ;  November,  1901,  p.  366. 


352  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

from  Matadi  to  Leopoldville,  250  miles  in  length,  thus  connecting 
the  lower  waters  with  a  navigable  highway  to  the  interior.  The 
Kongo  Free  State,  with  an  area  of  nearly  870,000  square  miles  and 
an  estimated  population  of  30,000,000  persons,  and  lying  as  it  does  in 
one  of  the  greatest  regions  of  tropical  production  in  the  world,  with 
the  advantages  of  a  great  natural  highway  of  transportation  to  the 
seacoast,  is  destined  to  hold  a  place  of  first  importance  as  a  source 
of  raw  material  supply.  The  Nile  Valley,  the  ancient  trade  route 
into  eastern  Equatorial  Africa,  is  now  the  site  of  a  railroad  from  Cairo 
to  beyond  Khartum  in  the  Egyptian  Sudan,  about  1200  miles.  The 
railroad  system  of  South  Africa  extends  as  a  trunk  line  from  Cape 
Town  to  Bulawayo  in  Rhodesia,  a  distance  of  some  1500  miles,  with 
numerous  side  branches  to  the  eastern  seaboard  at  such  terminal 
points  as  Port  Elizabeth,  Port  Alfred,  East  London,  Durban,  and 
Lorenzo  Marquez.  The  Bulawayo  line  has  already  opened  up  a  vast 
productive  territory  on  the  plateaus  of  Rhodesia  (Matabeleland), 
where  such  towns  as  Bulawayo,  Salisbury,  Victoria,  Umtali,  etc.,  are 
already  in  a  flourishing  condition  ;  here  the  climate  is  favorable  to 
European  residence  and  the  growth  of  cereal  crops.  The  pro- 
posed extension  of  this  railroad  northward  across  the  Zambesi  basin 
to  Lake  Tanganyika,  and  from  thence  by  the  Victoria  Nyanza  to  the 
upper  Nile  to  meet  the  line  that  is  projected  from  Khartum  south- 
ward, is  the  scheme  that  when  accomplished  will  complete  the 
"  Cape-to-Cairo  "  railroad,  and  will  open  up  a  vast  interior  territory 
of  agricultural  and  mineral  wealth.  Already  a  line  has  been  built 
from  the  coast  town  of  Mombasa  (British  East  Africa)  to  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  in  the  Uganda  protectorate,  which  will  form  an  important 
branch  line  connecting  the  "Cape-to-Cairo"  route  with  the  east 
coast  at  that  point.  The  Portuguese  are  operating  a  railroad  in 
Angola  which  extends  for  upwards  of  200  miles  through  a  rich  agri- 
cultural region  from  St.  Paul  de  Loanda  on  the  west  coast,  to  Ambaca 
in  the  interior.  This  line,  along  with  others  to  be  built,  will  be 
extended  ultimately  to  connect  with  the  "  Cape-to-Cairo "  route 


Commercial  Africa  353 

when  the  latter  is  completed.  Steamers  already  ply  the  navigable 
portions  of  many  of  the  African  rivers  and  are  on  the  lakes  of  East 
Africa.  The  Postal  Union  has  effected  arrangements  by  which  regular 
post  offices  are  established  in  the  interior,  and  mail  is  carried  from 
New  York  to  the  heart  of  Africa  in  twenty-five  days. 

Until  very  recent  years  the  interior  of  Africa  has  been  practically 
inaccessible,  owing  to  the  cataracts,  the  deadly  climate  of  the  lower 
valleys  and  coast  lands,  and  the  hostility  of  the  native  peoples.  These 
barriers  have  been  in  part  overcome  by  the  building  of  railroads  and 
the  pacification  of  the  various  tribes.  As  Mr.  S.  P.  Verner  has  said 
in  a  very  v  suggestive  article:  "Scores  of  steamboats  ply  the  waters 
of  the  rivers,  railways  are  being  built  in  every  part,  commercial  com- 
panies operate  all  over  the  land,  the  natives  have  turned  from  eating 
each  other  to  working  on  the  railways  and  in  the  mines  and  buying 
Armour's  beef;  and  the  men  who  chased  Stanley  down  the  Kongo 
are  now  piloting  steamboats  up."  The  overcoming  of  the  climatic 
barrier  must  be  met  to  a  great  extent  by  modern  hygienic  methods. 
The  writer  above  cited  further  says  :  "  With  ice  factories,  electric 
fans,  waterworks,  scientific  plumbing  and  sanitation,  and  all  the 
accompanying  means  of  making  life  comfortable  which  will  follow 
the  development  of  Africa's  natural  riches,  the  Caucasian  will  be  able 
to  live  and  prosper  in  the  wisely  selected  parts  of  the  continent  not 
only  in  safety,  but  in  great  comfort  and  happiness,  and  from  these 
central  stations,  to  operate  the  whole  of  Africa."'1  The  healthful 
stations  here  meant  are  the  elevated  plateaus  of  the  interior. 

Africa  is  still,  for  the  greater  part,  an  undeveloped  continent. 
Only  the  northern  and  southern  portions  may  be  regarded  as  of  pres- 
ent commercial  importance.  Three-fourths  of  the  import  trade  is 
through  the  seaports  of  the  Mediterranean,  Natal,  and  Cape  Colony. 
As  a  result  of  this,  the  trade  is  largely  in  British  hands  ;  Egypt  in  the 
northeast  is  mainly  under  British  influence.  Large  areas  in  the  densely 
populated  Sudan  are  still  reached  only  by  the  trans-Saharan  caravans. 

1  Verner,  Forum  ;  November,  1901. 
2A 


354  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

In  the  Mediterranean  countries  the  imports  are  mainly  cotton  tex- 
tiles, tobacco,  spirituous  liquors,  clocks,  and  minor  articles  of  trade 
(trinkets,  etc.)  ;  in  South  Africa  the  mining  interests  demand  a 
much  greater  variety  and  a  higher  class  of  manufactures,  as  machinery 
and  tools,  explosives,  clothing,  meat,  and  flour. 

From  the  predominating  character  of  the  exports,  Africa  may  be 
divided  into  three  commercial  areas :  the  northern,  the  tropical, 
and  the  southern.  In  the  former,  agricultural  products,  as  cotton, 
coffee,  dates,  cacao,  spices,  etc.,  predominate.  The  resources  of  the 
tropical  area  are  largely  native  forest  products,  as  rubber,  gums  of 
various  sorts,  palm  nuts,  palm  oil,  and  ivory.  In  South  Africa,  live 
stock  raising  and  crop  growing  are  of  increasing  importance,  and  are 
destined  to  be  among  the  chief  factors  in  the  region's  future-  devel- 
opment ;  up  to  the  present,  however,  the  mining  resources,  chiefly 
gold  and  diamonds,  form  the  largest  value  in  the  export  trade  from 
South  Africa. 

232.  Commercial  Centers.  —  Certain  sections  lying  within  these 
three  areas  of  production  stand  out  prominently  as  centers  of 
African  trade.  Egypt  is  the  most  important  commercial  region  of 
the  north,  controlling  the  trade  of  the  eastern  Sudan  and  the  Nile 
Valley.  Zanzibar  is  a  prominent  east  coast  trade  center.  French 
Senegal,  Liberia,  the  British  and  German  West  African  colonies,  and 
the  stations  on  the  Lower  Kongo  are  the  leading  trade,  points  of 
the  west  coast.  Beyond  the  Zambesi,  British  South  Africa  is  fast 
assuming  the  position  of  the  most  important  commercial  unit  of  the 
continent. 

Africa  holds  a  position  of  strategic  importance  in  the  political  and 
commercial  affairs  of  the  world  at  large.  The  strait  of  Gibraltar  has 
the  northwestern  corner  of  the  continent  on  one  side.  Egypt  and 
the  Suez  Canal  at  the  northeastern,  and  Cape  Colony  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  continent,  control  the  commercial  routes  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Australia.  The  recent  efforts  of  Great 
Britain  to  extend  her  sphere  of  influence  throughout  South  Africa, 


Commercial  Africa  355 

and    to   connect    the    Cape   with    Cairo,   is   a   recognition    of  the 
strategic  importance  of  Africa. 

233.  Egypt.  —  Egypt  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country,  the  rich 
alluvial  deposit  from  the  Nile  overflow  rendering  the  land  extremely 
fertile.     The  country  is  a  tributary  state  of  Turkey,  governed  by  the 
Khedive  ;  but  the  commercial  and  financial  affairs  are  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  Great  Britain.    Cotton  forms  the  bulk  of  the  value  of  Egyp- 
tian exports,  cereals  and  vegetables  holding  a  second  place.     Cairo, 
at  the  head  of  the  Nile  delta,  is  the  capital  of  Egypt  and  the  largest 
city  on  the  African  continent.     Alexandria  is  the   most  important 
commercial  center,  and  the   chief  port  of  the   country.     The  Suez 
Canal,  eighty-seven  miles  in  length,  connects  the  Mediterranean  with 
the  Red  Sea  and  has  been  an  important  factor  in  the  commercial 
development  of  the  East  and   of  Australia.      Port  Said  and  Suez 
are  towns  at  either  end  of  the  canal.     On  an  average  ten  vessels  a 
day  pass  through  the   canal,  seven  out  of  which  are  British.     The 
canal  is    neutral  and  is  governed  by  an   international  commission; 
each  vessel  pays  a  toll  for  transit.     Khartum,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Blue   and  the   White  Nile,  is   the  chief  commercial  center  of  the 
Egyptian  Sudan,  and  is  connected  by  rail  and  telegraph  with  Cairo. 

234.  South  Africa.  —  The  vast  area  of  South  Africa  (Africa  south 
of  the  Zambesi),  offers  an  inviting  field  for  future  commercial  enter- 
prise.    Rich  deposits  of  coal  have  been  discovered  in  the  Zambesi 
basin,  iron  and  other  metals  undoubtedly  exist  in  great  quantities, 
and  the  Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambesi  are  scarcely  second  to  Niagara 
as  a  source  of  power.     The  temperate  parts,  on  the  higher  plateaus 
of  Rhodesia  and  the  land  farther  to  the  south  (in  Cape  Colony,  etc.), 
are    adapted    to  stock  raising  and  grain   growing.      The  gold  and 
diamond  mining  interests  already  form  leading  industries  in  several 
sections  of  South  Africa.     Kimberley  is  the  center  of  the  greatest 
diamond-producing  region  yet  discovered   (furnishing  98   per  cent 
of  the  diamonds   of  commerce).     Johannesburg   and  other  towns 
are    in    a    gold    field    (the    Witwatersrand,    or    more    commonly 


356 


TJie  Geography  of  Commerce 


called  the  "Rand"),  the  output  of  which  since  1884  is  upwards 
of  $300,000,000,  and  with  "  gold  in  sight "  amounting  probably  to 
$3,500,000,000.*  This  is  to  say  nothing  of  the  gold  fields  of  Rhodesia. 
The  South  African  gold  is  in  vein  quartz  or  "reef,"  and  requires 
costly  machinery  for  its  extraction. 

Cape  Town  (Cape  Colony),  by  virtue  of  its  position  at  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  continent,  is  destined  to  play  much  the  same  part  in 
the  commercial  development 
of  the  interior  as  New  York 
has  done  in  the  United  States. 
It  will  undoubtedly  always  be 
the  chief  commercial  and  dis- 
bursing center  of  the  region. 
Other  British  ports  of  impor- 
tance (all  on  the  eastern  coast) 
are  Durban  (the  port  of  Natal), 
Port  Elizabeth,  Port  Alfred, 
and  East  London.  Lorenzo 
Marquez,  on  Delagoa  Bay,  is 


CAPE  COLONY                      $135 

=  18* 

OTHER  BRITISH  AFRICA  $177 

=  24* 

EGYPT                                   $153                      =21* 

ALGERIA                               $104 

=  14* 

OTHER  FRENCH  AFRICA  $72                           =-10* 

PORTUGUESE  AFRICA       $42 

-   6* 

OTHER  AFRICA                     $55 

-    7* 

a    Portuguese    port    of   some    COMMERCE   OF   AFRICA    (1900)   APPROXI- 
prominence.      Owing    to    the          MATED  IN  MlLLIONS  OF  DoLLARS 

Total,  $738,000,000 

general  aridity  of  the  western 

portion  of  South  Africa,  there  are  comparatively  few  settlements  along 

the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

235.  Other  Commercial  Centers. — Of  the  several  divisions  of  North 
Africa  lying  outside  of  Egypt,  Tangier,  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
Morocco,  Algiers,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli  are  the  most  important  com- 
mercially. Tripoli  is  the  terminus  of  a  large  caravan  trade  across  the 
Sahara.  Zanzibar,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name  lying  off  the  coast  of 
German  East  Africa,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  the  interior 
region  of  eastern  Equatorial  Africa.  It  was  at  one  time  a  center 
of  the  Arab  trade  in  slaves  and  ivory.  Banana  and  Boma  are  ports 
1  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  Commercial  Africa. 


Commercial  Africa  357 

of  the  Kongo  Free  State.  Other  West  African  ports  are  St.  Paul 
de  Loanda  (Angola),  Libreville  and  Loango  (French  Kongo), 
Lagos  (Niger  Territories),  Monrovia  (Liberia),  Free  Town  (Sierra 
Leone)  which  commands  the  best  harbor  on  the  west  coast,  Bath- 
urst  (Gambia),  and  St.  Louis  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  River. 
Timbuctu  is  an  important  center  of  the  caravan  trade.  It  is  situated 
on  the  upper  Niger  in  the  French  Sudan. 

236.  Trade  Relations.  —  Of  the  total  import  trade  of  Africa,  the 
United  States  furnishes  about  five  per  cent.  The  latest  reports 
show  a  marked  increase,  in  part  a  result  of  the  growing  demand 
for  American  mining  and  agricultural  machinery. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

280.  Why  has  Africa,  which  was  the  seat  of  a  civilization  among  the  earliest, 
remained  the  "  dark  continent "  ? 

281.  Compare  the  physical  features  of  Africa  with  those  of  South  America. 

282.  Make  a  contrast  between  Europe  and  Africa  with  regard  to   natural 
advantages  for  trade. 

283.  What  European  nations  have  possessions  on  the  north  cost  of  Africa? 
What  on  the  west  coast?     What  on  the  east  coast?     (See  map  opposite  p.  367.) 

284.  "There  are  three  regions  in  Africa;  the  region  of  firearms,  of  cotton,  and 
of  slaves."     Explain  this  and  try  to  locate  the  regions. 

285.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  partition  of  Africa  "  ?     What  are  the  interested 
nations? 

286.  Give  an  account  of  the  irrigation  methods  used  in  Egypt.     What  is  the 
influence  of  irrigation  on  this  region? 

287.  Trace  the  "  Cape-to-Cairo  "  railroad. 

288.  What  is  the  importance    of   South  African   possessions  to  the  British 
Empire? 

289.  Compare  the  advantages  of  England's  communication  with  India  via  the 
Suez  Canal,  and  via  South  Africa. 

290.  Write  a  brief  essay  on  The  Commerical  Future  of  Africa. 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*  The  International  Geography,  Chapters  XLVIII  to  LIII. 
Bryce,  Impressions  of  South  Africa.     London  ;    1897. 
Drummond,  Tropical  Africa.     London;    1888. 


358  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

*Keltie,  Partition  of  Africa.     London,  Second  Edition,  1895  (especially  Chapter 

XXII  on  the  Economic  Value  of  Africa). 
**  Commercial  Africa  in  1900.     Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  for 

April,  1902. 

Johnston,  The  Uganda  Protectorate.     London  and  New  York  ;    1902. 
**Verner,  The  Development  of  Africa.     Forum;  November,  1901. 
**The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 


CHAPTER   XXXIV 

AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

237.  Australian  Geography.  —  The  Australian  continent  is  an  iso- 
lated land  mass  lying  in  the  southern  or  ocean  hemisphere,  with  an 
area  a  little  less  than  that  of  the  United  States  exclusive  of  Alaska. 
About  three-fifths  of  Australia  lies  within  the  south  temperate  zone ; 
the  remainder  (lesser  northern  portion)  is  within  the  tropics.  Australia 
represents  the  largest  exposed  portion  of  an  old  sunken  land  mass 
that  was  once  continuous  with  the  continent  of  Asia.  Its  fundamental 
physical  feature  is  that  of  a  vast  central  plain  of  uneven  surface  sur- 
rounded by  a  rim  of  highlands,  the  slopes  of  which  determine  a  drain- 
age towards  an  interior  area  of  depression  occupied  by  a  system  of 
salt  lakes.  This  central  Australian  plain,  cut  off  from  the  rain-bearing 
winds  by  the  surrounding  mountain  ranges,  has  the  characteristics  of 
a  desert.  As  a  result  of  the  comparatively  short  seaward  slopes 
of  the  mountain  ranges,  there  are  no  long  inland  rivers  that  open  to 
the  sea ;  the  Murray-Darling  river  system  in  the  southeast  is  the 
only  one  of  any  extent. 

The  peculiar  life  features  of  Australia  are  a  result  of  long 
isolation.  The  vegetation  has  many  ancient  types,  which  have 
long  since  passed  away  in  other  parts  of  the  earth.  Notable 
among  these  are  the  tree  myrtles  (including  the  giant  eucalyptus 
or  "  gum  tree  "),  ferns,  and  numerous  other  groups,  many  of  which 
have  become  adapted  to  the  excessive  evaporation  of  a  dry  climate 
by  the  development  of  oils  and  leathery  leaves  which  tend'  to  re- 
tain moisture ;  other  plants  have  a  twist  of  the  stalk  whereby  the 
leaf  is  turned  edgewise,  the  surface  being  thus  shielded  from  the 
effects  of  direct  sun's  rays.  A  great  variety  of  native  grasses  are 

359 


360 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


found   throughout   many  parts  of  Australia,  and   this   fact   largely 
determined  the  pastoral  occupation  of  the  early  settlers. 

238.  The  Australian  Commonwealth.  —  The  five  original  colonies 
of  Australia  and  the  adjacent  island  colony  of  Tasmania,  have  re- 
cently been  federated  into  a  single  commonwealth  by  an  act  of  the 
British   Parliament.     The   six   political    divisions    include   Victoria 
(about  one-third   larger  than   the    entire   New  England  group   of 
states),     New     South 

Wales  (nearly  twice 
the  size  of  the  Middle 
Atlantic  and  New  Eng- 
land States  taken  to- 
gether), Queensland 
(equal  to  the  com- 
bined area  of  Wash- 
ington, Oregon,  Idaho, 
Colorado,  Utah,  Ne- 
vada, and  Arizona), 
South  Australia  (larger 
than  the  whole  United 
States  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi) ,  West  Australia 
(somewhat  larger  than  the  last-named  division),  and  Tasmania 
(about  equal  to  the  area  of  West  Virginia).  The  last  named  is  an 
island  lying  about  150  miles  south  of  Australia.  The  government 
of  British  Australasia  is  termed  "  self- responsible,"  and  it  is  laid  on 
similar  lines  to  that  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  A  system  of  uniform 
customs  has  been  established  which  will  greatly  facilitate  commerce. 

239.  Production  and   Commerce.  —  Stock  raising  and  agriculture 
are  the  chief  industries  of  Australia.     The  agricultural  returns  from 
each  section  of  the  Commonwealth  show  that  out  of  the  total  value 
of  production,  Victoria  contributes  upwards  of  25    per   cent,  New 
South  Wales   upwards   of  22   per   cent,    South   Australia   over    10 


Australia  and  the  Pacific  Islands  361 

per  cent;  Queensland,  Tasmania,  and  West  Australia  upwards  of 
7,  3,  and  i  per  cent,  respectively,  while  New  Zealand,  which  is 
included  in  the  returns,  being  a  part  of  British  Australia,  contrib- 
utes nearly  29  per  cent  of  the  whole.  Of  the  crops  raised,  wheat 
forms  the  largest  proportion  (some  25  per  cent),  hay  being  the 
next  in  order  (over  23  per  cent).  Maize,  barley,  oats,  potatoes, 
grapes,  fruits  (orchard  and  garden),  garden  vegetables,  hops,  to- 
bacco, sugar  cane,  etc.,  are  other  crops  of  importance.  Root  crops, 
such  as  turnips,  are  largely  raised  for  feeding  stock,  especially  in  New 
Zealand  where  more  than  half  a  million  acres  are  under  turnips, 
which  are  fed  to  sheep. 

Stock  raising  has  always  been  the  most  important  feature  of 
Australian  industry,  since  the  climate  and  the  pasture  are  in  every 
way  conducive  to  its  best  development.  Sheep  raising  and  the 
production  of  wool  lead  all  other  forms  of  live  stock  industry.  The 
introduction  of  the  merino  sheep  into  Australia  more  than  half  a 
century  ago,  greatly  increased  the  value  of  the  wool,  and  Australian 
wool  now  ranks  with  the  best  in  the  world,  Australia  (including 
New  Zealand)  is  to-day  the  greatest  wool-producing  country  in 
the  world;  the  product  for  1901  was  upwards  of  510,000,000  pounds, 
while  that  of  Argentina,  the  second  wool-producing  country,  was 
some  370,000,000  pounds.  The  perfecting  of  methods  in  the  freez- 
ing and  chilling  of  meat  has  greatly  stimulated  the  Australian  live 
stock  industry ;  the  exports  of  meat  from  British  Australia,  including 
New  Zealand,  amount  to  more  than  $18,000,000  annually. 

The  mining  interests  of  Australia  are  of  very  great  importance, 
especially  in  the  production  of  gold  and  copper.  Victoria  is  by  far 
the  greatest  gold-producing  state  in  the  commonwealth.  Tin  and 
silver  also  occur,  and  coal  is  found  in  New  South  Wales  and  in  New 
Zealand.  Iron  ores  abound  but  are  comparatively  unworked,  owing 
to  the  expense  of  extraction  and  transportation. 

The  value  of  goods  imported  by  Australia  from  the  United  States 
amounts  to  something  over  $30,000,000  annually.  Great  Britain 


362  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

holds  the  largest  share  of  trade  with  her  great  southern  colony, 
but  the  United  States  has  had  a  marked  increase  in  the  export  of 
goods  to  Australia  during  the  last  twenty  years.  Iron  and  steel 
manufactures  are  the  leading  items,  and  the  raw  and  manufactured 
products  of  tobacco,  wood,  paper,  leather,  also  cars,  coal  oil,  cotton 
goods,  instruments,  and  implements  of  various  sorts,  watches  and 
clocks,  are  among  the  important  articles  which  Australia  imports  from 
the  United  States. 


THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION' OF  WOOL  (1901),  APPROXIMATED  IN  MILLIONS 

OF  POUNDS 
Total  production,  2,699,884,704  pounds 

Of  the  total  value  of  pastoral  products,  including  the  wool  clip, 
New  South  Wales  and  Queensland  each  furnishes  about  30  per  cent ; 
Victoria  about  12  per  cent,  and  South  Australia  about  n  per  cent. 
Of  the  total  value  of  mine  products,  New  South  Wales  and  West 
Australia  each  furnishes  about  28  per  cent,  Victoria  about  15  per 
cent,  and  Queensland  14  per  cent. 

The  largest  cities  and  chief  commercial  centers  of  the  common-* 
wealth  are:  Melbourne  (Victoria),  Sydney  (New  South  Wales), 
Adelaide  (South  Australia),  Brisbane  (Queensland),  Perth  (West 


Australia  and  the  Pacific  Islands  363 

Australia),  and  Hobart  (Tasmania).  All  command  excellent  har- 
bors and  are  connected  with  one  another  and  with  the  productive 
centers  by  railroads  and  steamship  lines. 

240.  New  Zealand.  —  The  British  colony  of  New  Zealand,  con- 
sisting of  two  large  islands  and  a  number  of  smaller  ones,  is  about 
equal  in  area  to  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Delaware 
combined.  It  lies  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  noo  miles  southeast 
of  Australia.  The  surface  is  mountainous  and  well  watered,  but  the 
numerous  rivers  are  not  generally  navigable.  The  land  was  origi- 
nally heavily  forested  over  half  its  area,  but  it  is  now  largely  cleared. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  islands  is  natural  open  land,  covered  with 
native  grasses,  one  species  of  which  is  known  as  New  Zealand 
flax.  The  great  kauri  pine  yields  valuable  timber  and  resin  (kauri 
gum).  A  considerable  quantity  of  the  gum  is  obtained  from  old 
forests  that  have  fallen  and  been  buried  beneath  the  soil.  The 
chief  industries  are  connected  with  cattle  and  sheep  raising ;  large 
quantities  of  frozen  mutton  are  shipped  to  England.  Tanning,  the- 
manufacture  of  shoes,  woolen  textiles,  etc.,  are  among  the  impor- 
tant pursuits  dependent  upon  the  pastoral  occupation.  Tillage  is 
second  to  stock  raising  in  commercial  importance.  Considerable 
coal  and  gold  are  mined,  and  manufactures  of  various  sorts  are 
carried  on.  The  agricultural  and  pastoral  products  form  upwards  of 
80  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  productions.  The  yield  of  the  mining 
industries  amounts  to  about  1 2  per  -cent  of  the  total  value,  while  the 
remainder  is  divided  between  the  forest  and  the  fisheries.  The  trade 
is  mainly  with  Great  Britain  and  the  British  colonies.  The  United 
States'  share  in  New  Zealand  trade  amounts  to  about  8  per  cent  of 
the  total  value  of  the  island's  commerce,  being  second  to  that  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  British  colonies.  New  Zealand  has  a  well-organized 
system  of  railroad  and  telegraph  communication.  Auckland  and 
Wellington  (North  Island)  and  Dunedin  and  Christchurch  (South 
Island)  are  the  chief  commercial  centers  of  the  colony.  All  but 
Christchurch,  which  is  inland,  command  good  harbors. 


364  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

241.  Madagascar  and  Mauritius.  —  The  large  island  of  Madagascar, 
lying  off  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  is  a  French  protectorate.     Its  com- 
merce  is  small,  the  chief  productions  being  cattle,  hides,  wax,  and 
rubber.     The  interior  of  the  island  is  mountainous  and  well  watered, 
and  affords  abundant  pasturage. 

Mauritius,  with  its  dependency  the  Seychelles,  is  a  British  colony, 
the  chief  productions  of  which  are  sugar  and  cocoanuts.  The  island 
of  Socotra,  in  the  Indian  Ocean  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  Africa, 
is  a  British  possession  and  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  export  of  aloes, 
which  are  used  in  medicine. 

242.  Oceanica.  —  The  area  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  exceeds  by  some 
4,000,000  square  miles  the  entire  land  surface  of  the  earth.     Through- 
out this  vast  expanse  are  scattered  some  600  island  groups  or  clus- 
ters, aggregating  at  least  5000  islands.     These  islands  collectively 
(exclusive  of  Hawaii)  equal  an  area  larger  than  the  combined  area 
of  the  New  England  States,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Virginia,  and  both  of  the 
Carolinas.     The  native  peoples  of  the  islands  belong  to  the  Pacific 
group  and  number  upwards  of  1,600,000  individuals ;  they  are  sepa- 
rated into  the  different  island  communities,  isolated  from  one  another 
by  wide  stretches  of  sea.     A  large  number  of  the  islands  are  under 
the  control  of  European  nations.     Great  Britain  controls  19  islands 
and  island  clusters  (111,500  square  miles  with  650,000  population), 
Germany  holds  possession  in  8  islands  and  island  groups  (100,000 
square  miles,  with   645,000  population),  France  controls  7  islands 
and  groups  (12,200  square   miles,  with    120,000  population),  Hol- 
land possesses  one  colony  on  the  island  of  New  Guinea  (152,000 
square  miles  with  200,000  population)  ;  the  United  States'  possessions 
have  already  been  considered  in  Chapter  XL 

Aside  from  the  large  island  of  New  Guinea  or  Papua,  which  be- 
longs in  part  to  the  Australian  and  in  part  to  the  Malay  region,  the 
Pacific  islands  are  divided  into  three  main  groups,  based  largely  on 
the  affinities  of  the  native  peoples.  These  are  known  as  :  (i)  Micro- 


Australia  and  the  Pacific  Islands  365 

nesia,  which  embraces  all  of  the  small  island  clusters  of  the  western 
Pacific  north  of  New  Guinea;  (2)  Melanesia,  or  the  island  groups 
that  lie  between  New  Guinea  and  the  Fiji  Islands ;  and  (3)  Poly- 
nesia, which  includes  all  the  rest  of  the  widely  scattered  archipela- 
goes. These  islands  are  of  volcanic  and  coral  formation,  and  are 
wholly  tropical  in  character;  the  banana,  breadfruit,  taro,  yam, 
sugar  cane,  and  cocoanut  are  the  staple  native  products.  Hereto- 
fore the  islands  have  been  of  slight  commercial  value,  though  a  num- 
ber of  the  larger  groups  have  been  made  of  some  value  to  the  powers 
which  control  them.  Their  importance  in  world  commerce  will  be 
greatly  increased  with  the  opening  of  an  Isthmian  Canal. 

The  Fiji  Islands  (British)  produce  various  tropical  crops;  the 
commerce  is  mainly  with  Great  Britain,  the  annual  imports  amount- 
ing to  more  than  $1,700,000.  Viti  Levu  is  the  largest  island  of 
the  group,  the  chief  port  and  capital  of  which  is  Suva.  Levuka 
is  another  port  on  a  smaller  island.  Among  the  chief  crops  raised 
are  sugar  cane,  coffee,  maize,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  cocoanuts. 
Copra  is  an  important  article  of  commerce. 

Gold  constitutes  a  large  item  in  the  value  of  New  Guinea's  exports ; 
the  other  items  are  pearl  shell,  sandalwood,  copra,  India  rubber, 
tortoise  shells,  orchids,  and  pearls.  The  island  is  capable  of  develop- 
ment in  the  production  of  a  variety  of  tropical  goods. 

New  Caledonia  (French)  holds  the  largest  portion  of  its  commerce 
with  France  and  Australia.  The  United  States  supplies  hardware, 
tools,  cutlery,  petroleum,  wooden  wares,  furniture,  and  provisions. 

Samoa  has  already  been  considered  under  the  United  States'  out- 
lying possessions.  Pago  Pago  is  the  port  of  call  for  the  American- 
Australian  steamers.  There  is  a  regular  steamer  service  between 
San  Francisco  and  Pago  Pago.  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the 
United  States  hold  the  principal  trade  of  the  islands. 

The  Tonga  or  Friendly  Islands  (British)  produce  a  variety  of 
fiber  plants  and  the  natives  distill  an  oil  from  flowers.  Sperm  whales 
are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  these  islands,  and  pearl  fishing 


366  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

is  also  largely  carried  on  in  the  near-by  waters.     Copra  is  the  chief 
article  produced,  forming  75  per  cent  of  the  export. 

Tahiti,  or  the  Society  Islands,  are  a  French  possession  and  are  in 
direct  connection  with  San  Francisco  by  steamer ;  the  United  States 
holds  the  largest  share  of  the  trade.  The  chief  exports  are  copra, 
mother-of-pearl,  vanilla,  and  cotton. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

291.  Have  continents  an  "individuality"  ?     If  so,  what  is  that  of  Australia  ? 

292.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  Australian  animals  and  plants,  and  what  do  they 
indicate  about  the  relation  between  this  continent  and  the  Old  World  land  mass? 

293.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  Australian  government  to  the  British  Empire? 

294.  Where  are  the  Australian  gold  fields  and  how  have  they  influenced  in 
the  development  of  Australia? 

295.  Give   an  account  of  the  British  "  penal  system."     Show  its  effects  on 
colonizing  in  Australia  and  Tasmania. 

296.  What  is  "  the  country  without  strikes "  ?     Give   some    account   of  its 
economic  organization.      (Henry  Demarest  Lloyd.) 

297.  What  do  you  understand  by  colonies  with  "  responsible  government "  ? 
By  colonies  for  "  exploitation  "  ? 

298.  Is  Humboldt's  prediction  that  the  Pacific  of  the  twentieth  century  would 
be  an  ocean  dotted  with  commercial  fleets  likely  to  be  realized  ? 

299.  Is  there  likelihood  that  the  center  of  maritime  operations  will  shift  from 
the  Atlantic   to  the  Pacific  as  it  once  shifted  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Atlantic  ?     Why  ? 

300.  The  steamships  Minnesota  and  Dakota  (building  for  the  Pacific  trade, 
1903)  have  the  largest  carrying  capacity  of  any  afloat.     They  require  for  a  cargo, 
the  freight  of  one  hundred  trains  of  twenty-five  cars  each.     What  will  be  the 
probable  effects  of  ships  of  this  size  in  the  Pacific  trade? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

* '-Australia  and  Polynesia.     Chapters   XXXI  to  XXXVI,  inclusive,    The  Inter- 

national  Geography. 
**  Commercial  Australia  in  1900.    Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  ; 

November,  1901.     Treasury  Department.     Washington,  D.C. 
Bates,  Australian  Experiments  in  Industry.     Publications  of  American  Academy 

of  Political  and  Social  Science. 
Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum,  Foreign  Trade  Lists  and  Commercial  Guides. 

(Furnished  to  subscribers  only.) 
**  The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 
Lloyd,  Newest  England.     New  York,  1900. 


120°        Longitude  150°  East  180° 


THE   COLONIZING   POWERS   OF 
NEW  T  H  E     W  O  K  1,  D 

AND  THEIR  POSSESSIONS 


SXr          Lon*:.tU'Je  Go'          West    fr 


Longitude  30°  East  00° 


BQRMAY  4  CO.,  N.  Y. 


PART    V    (Conclusion) 
REVIEW  OF   WORLD   COMMERCE 


CHAPTER   XXXV 

WORLD   COMMERCE 

243.  General  Principles  of  World  Trade.  —  The  division  of  labor 
that  exists  among  the  members  of  a  community  exists  also  among  the 
nations  of  the  world  at  large.  The  people  of  one  country  usually 
produce  something,  either  raw  or  manufactured,  which  the  peoples 
of  other  countries  need.  Interchange  of  commodities  results  in  part 


WORLD'S  DISTRIBUTION  OF  MANUFACTURES 

from  different  geographical  environments.  The  greatest  contrast 
lies  between  temperate  and  tropical  regions,  and  one  object  in 
acquiring  territorial  control  in  the  tropics  is  to  secure  tropical 
products.  Speaking  broadly,  the  manufacturing  industries  may  be 
said  to  characterize  the  nations  of  the  temperate  zone,  while  the 
production  of  raw  materials  is  a  leading  interest  of  the  tropical  peo- 
ples. The  presence  of  water  power,  and  of  coal  and  iron,  determines 

367 


368  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

a  manufacturing  population,  especially  when  coupled  with  favorable 
conditions  of  climate  and  soil.  The  raw  material  produced  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  is  at  first  utilized,  but  the  increasing  capacity  for 
manufacture,  sooner  or  later  draws  upon  raw  material  from  more 
remote  regions,  and  commercial  interchange  is  thus  established. 
Illustrations  of  this  fact  have  already  been  'presented.  (See  Chap- 
ter  IX.) 

The  aptitudes  of  different  peoples  for  different  kinds  of  industrial 
activities  is  another  factor  in  promoting  world  commerce.  This 
again  is  largely  a  question  of  environment.  Generations  of  men  liv- 
ing under  the  same  conditions,  and  engaged  in  the  same  occupations 
throughout  long  periods,  become  adapted  to  special  lines  of  work. 
This  principle  may  be  so  effective  as  to  give  industrial  character  to  a 
nation.  The  agricultural  Dutch,  the  weaving  and  lace-making  popula- 
tions of  northern  France  and  Belgium,  the  silk  and  tea  producers  of 
China,  the  silk  weavers  of  France  and  Italy,  are  a  few  illustrations  of 
this  principle  of  aptitude,  native  or  acquired. 

The  foreign  trade  of  a  country  may  be  simply  the  expansion  of  its 
internal  or  domestic  trade.  The  surplus  of  production,  in  either  raw 
materials  or  manufactures,  becomes  an  export.  The  exchange  of 
this  surplus  for  the  needed  commodities  produced  by  a  foreign 
country,  lies  at  the  basis  of  world  commerce. 

244.  Factors  in  the  Interchange  of  Commodities.  —  To  exchange 
surplus  for  the  products  of  other  nations,  is  -the  chief  end  of  commer- 
cial intercourse.  The  means  by  which  this  intercourse  is  accomplished 
is  through  a  system  of  exchange  of  goods  based  on  their  respective 
values.  Value  in  exchange,  as  here  used,  is  the  quantity  of  one  thing 
that  can  be  had  for  a  certain  quantity  of  some  other  thing.  The  pro- 
portion of  these  quantities  is  the  measure  of  the  value  of  the  thing  in 
question.  Commodities  have  two  very  different  sorts  of  value.  One  of 
these  is  the  relative  or  proportional  value  of  a  thing  in  the  system  of 
exchange  ;  the  other  is  the  absolute  value  of  a  thing  in  its  practical  use. 
We  might  purchase  many  tons  of  anthracite  coal  for  the  price  of  a 


World  Commerce 


369 


single  diamond,  and  yet  the  absolute  value  of  the  coal  for  use  is 
vastly  greater  than  that  of  the  gem. 

Money  is  the  measure  of  value  under  the  laws  of  supply  and 
demand.  In  international  trade,  actual  cash  payments  are  com- 
paratively small,  most  of  the  business  being  done  by  an  extensive 
system  of  credit  and  bills  of  exchange.  Trade  between  nations  is, 
after  all,  only  the  barter  of  primitive  peoples  on  an  extended  scale, 
and  the  same  laws  apply  alike  to  nations  and  individuals. 

The  system  of  banking  and 
credit  involves  the  establish- 
ment of  financial  houses 
throughout  the  world ;  the 
business  of  foreign  exchange 
is  largely  centered  in  certain 
cities.  Geographical  condi- 
tions are  in  many  cases  respon- 
sible for  the  prominence  of 
cities  as  great  financial  centers. 
Thus,  New  York,  Chicago,  San 
Francisco,  London,  Paris,  Ber- 
lin, Vienna,  Bombay,  Hong- 
Kong,  Canton,  Cape  Town, 
Melbourne,  Sydney,  Rio  de 

Janeiro,  Buenos  Ayres,  Valparaiso,  and  other  cities  have  become  the 
chief  financial  centers  of  their  respective  countries,  largely  by  reason 
of  their  location  in  relation  to  productive  areas,  with  reference  to 
river  and  rail  facilities,  and  the  command  of  ocean-going  traffic. 
These  conditions  have  focused  trade,  and  financial  interests  have 
developed  as  a  matter  of  course. 

Other  factors  in  the  growth  of  international  commerce  are  the 
establishment  of  a  definite  system  of  weights  and  measures,  the  trans- 
portation of  goods  by  ship  and  rail,  and  the  facilities  for  communica- 
tion by  telegraph  (both  land  and  submarine). 

2B 


TOTAL  COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD  (1900), 
REPRESENTED  BY  CONTINENTS 


370 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


245.  The  Decimal  System.  —  A  uniform  system  of  weights  and 
measures  upon  which  all  nations  should  agree  would  be  an  important 
gain  for  international  trade.  Probably  the  most  logical  system  yet 
devised,  is  that  known  as  the  metric.  It  is  in  use  in  almost  all  the 
continental  countries  of  Europe,  throughout  the  Spanish-American 
countries,  and  in  Japan  and  Java.  Unfortunately  neither  the  United 
States  nor  Great  Britain  has  as  yet  adopted  the  metric  system, 
though  generally  acknowledging  its  superiority  over  what  is  actually 
in  use. 


loooth 
milli 

looth 
centi 

ioth 
deci 

Standard 

10  times 
deka 

ioo  times 
hecto 

looo  times 
kilo 

millimeter 

centimeter 

decimeter 

Meter 

dekameter 

hectometer 

kilometer 

miligram 
mililiter 

centigram 
centiliter 

decigram 
deciliter 

Gram 
Liter 

dekagram 
dekaliter 

hectogram 
hectoliter 

kilogram 
kiloliter 

Not  all  of  the  above  terms,  however,  are  in  everyday  use.  Those 
most  commonly  used  are  the  meter,  centimeter,  decimeter,  and 
kilometer;  the  gram,  decigram,  and  kilogram;  the  liter  and  hec- 
toliter. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  decimal  system  will  ultimately  supersede 
the  old  and  irregular  methods  still  practiced  in  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  for  this  would  facilitate  the  trade  of  these 
countries  with  the  world  at  large. 

246.  Ocean  Trade  Routes.  —  Navigation  to-day  follows  regular 
routes  which  are  clearly  marked  out.  The  steamship  is  the  chief 
ocean  carrier  and  follows  these  highways  of  traffic  around  the  world 
from  port  to  port.  A  large  number  of  sailing  vessels  are  also  engaged 
in  world  commerce. 

The  five  great  ocean  thoroughfares  of  the  world  are  :  ( i )  The  Trans- 
Atlantic  Route  between  European  and  United  States  ports.  The 
Atlantic  Liners  follow  different  paths  on  the  western  and  the  eastern 
passage,  the  western  route  lying  to  the  north  of  the  eastern.  This 


World  Commerce  371 

is  to  prevent  the  danger  of  collision,  and  sailing  vessels  are  warned 
to  avoid  the  great  steamer  highways.     (See  Pilot  Chart,  p.  373.) 

(2)  The  Mediterranean  Route  to  the  East  from  European  ports, 
and  across  the  Atlantic  from  United  States  ports  to  Gibraltar,  thence 
through  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Red  Sea  via  Suez  Canal  and  to 
India,  China,  Australia,  and  East  African  ports. 

(3)  The  Pacific   Ocean  Route  between  western    North  America 
and    Hawaii,   the    Philippines,    Japan,    China,    New   Zealand,    and 
Australia. 

(4)  The  Cape  Horn  Route  by  the  east  coast  of  South  America 
around  Cape  Horn  (or  in  the  case  of  steamers  through  the  Strait 
of  Magellan)   to   the   ports   of  western  America  (both   South   and 
North)  and  also  to  Australia. 

(5)  The   Cape   of   Good  Hope  Route   down   the  west   coast   of 
Africa  and  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  ports  of  East 
Africa,  Australia,  and  the  East. 

Several  lines  of  steamers  regularly  traverse  the  two  last-named 
routes,  each  vessel  in  its  passage  making  a  complete  circuit  of  the 
world.  Starting  from  London  or  Plymouth,  for  example,  with  the 
average  steamship  a  run  of  over  1400  miles  is  made  in  five  days  to 
Teneriffe  (Canary  Islands).  From  this  point  to  Cape  Town,  a  run 
of  4450  miles  is  made  in  fifteen  days.  The  next  calling  port  is  Ho- 
bart,  Tasmania,  a  distance  of  more  than  5000  miles  which  is  made  in 
seventeen  days.  From  Hobart  the  longest  continuous  run  is  made 
by  the  eastward  across  the  South  Pacific,  around  Cape  Horn,  and 
up  the  South  American  coast  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  distance  covered 
being  6820  miles  and  the  time  twenty-two  days.  The  homeward  run 
from  Rio  to  London  or  Plymouth  is  made  in  seventeen  days,  calling 
at  Teneriffe  (3000  miles  distant  from  Rio).  A  total  distance  of  over 
25,000  miles  is  thus  covered  by  these  steamers  in  eighty-one  days. 

A  large  number  of  freighters  or  "  tramp "  steamers  are  also 
engaged  in  carrying  on  the  commerce  of  the  world  between  various 
countries.  These  take  cargoes  from  a  port  in  any  direction.  They 


3/2  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

are  either  owned  or  chartered  by  business  houses  in  different  parts 
of  the  world,  but  they  follow  for  the  most  part  the  five  great  trade 
routes. 

The  dangers  incident  to  ocean  commerce  are  vastly  lessened  by 
the  careful  charting  of  the  coasts  and  the  establishment  of  light- 
houses, buoys,  etc.,  by  the  governments  of  the  different  maritime 
nations.  A  number  of  different  governments  also  issue  at  regular 
intervals,  pilot  charts  which  contain  information  for  the  masters 
of  vessels,  relative  to  the  weather  conditions  likely  to  be  met  with  at 
the  time  of  year  for  which  they  are  issued,  the  presence  of  ice- 
bergs and  field  ice,  the  drift  of  currents,  the  position  of  derelicts, 
and  other  objects  that  have  gone  adrift.  The  information  is 
largely  based  on  the  data  received  from  the  reports  of  the  masters 
of  steamers  and  other  vessels  that  regularly  traverse  the  commercial 
routes  of  the  ocean  highway.  The  United  States  Pilot  Charts  are 
issued  monthly  for  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific  oceans, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Hydrographic  Office  in  the  Bureau  of 
Navigation  of  the  Navy  Department. 

247.  Ocean  Cables.  —  Business  between  different  countries  is  now 
carried  on  mainly  by  means  of  the  submarine  telegraph.  A  house 
orders  goods  from  a  foreign  house  by  using  the  system  of  telegraph 
codes,  either  words  or  figures,  each  word  or  figure  in  the  code  stand- 
ing for  a  sentence  or  portion  of  a  sentence.  This  greatly  reduces 
the  cost  of  sending  messages  by  minimizing  the  number  of  words  or 
characters. 

There  are  now  upwards  of  1750  submarine  telegraph  lines  through- 
out the  world,  aggregating  a  total  length  of  nearly  200,000  miles. 
More  than  6,000,000  messages  are  sent  over  these  lines  in  a  year. 
The  coast  of  every  continent,  outside  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions, 
and  the  southern  end  of  South  America,  is  looped  by  cables,  and 
with  the  Pacific  cable  completed  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Philippines,  via  Hawaii,  Wake  Island,  and  Guam,  there"  is  continuous 
telegraph  communication  around  the  earth.  (See  map,  p.  375.) 


374  The  Geography  of-  Commerce 

Of  the  commerce  of  the  great  eastern  markets  the  United  States 
now  holds  less  than  six  per  cent.  With  the  Pacific  submarine  tele- 
graph already  completed,  the  enlargement  of  the  merchant  marine, 
and  the  future  opening  of  an  Isthmian  Canal,  our  trade  with  the 
Pacific  lands  will  be  materially  increased. 

It  is  impossible  to  calculate  the  advantages  arising  from  the 
discovery  of  the  use  of  telegraphy  and  its  effects  upon  the  commerce 
of  nations.  Without  this  instantaneous  transmission  of  messages 
to  almost  every  corner  of  the  habitable  earth,  trade  as  we  know  it 
to-day  would  be  impossible.  The  vast  system  of  land  telegraphs 
throughout  the  world,  added  to  the  submarine  cables,  brings  up 
the  total  length  of  the  world's  telegraph  lines  to  the  enormous  figure 
of  1,180,000  miles,  the  total  length  of  single  wires  amounting  to 
3,800,000  miles.  Over  these  lines  400,000,000  messages  are  sent 
annually,  or  an  average  of  more  than  1,000,000  messages  per  day.1 

248.  International  Date  Line.  —  The  twenty- four  hours  of  the 
day  are  reckoned  from  twelve  o'clock  midnight  to  twelve  o'clock 
the  following  midnight.  The  change  of  day  is  constantly  taking 
place  to  the  westward  because  of  the  eastward  rotation  of  the  earth ; 
the  new  day  begins  earlier  at  a  given  place  than  at  places  west  of 
it.  Thus,  for.  example,  when  it  is  just  past  twelve  o'clock  midnight 
at  London  on  a  Monday  morning,  it  is  seven  o'clock  Sunday 
evening  (the  day  before)  at  New  York.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
Bombay,  for  example,  east  of  London,  midnight  comes  about  seven 
hours  earlier,  so  that  when  it  is  midnight  at  London  on  the  Monday 
morning  in  question,  it  is  about  seven  o'clock  of  the  morning  of 
the  same  day  at  Bombay.  From  the  earth's  form  and  motion  there 
can  be  no  one  natural  point  on  its  surface  where  the  day  can  truly  be 
said  to  begin  or  end.  It  has  been  found  convenient  to  fix  upon  some 
line  as  marking  the  beginning  of  each  day  for  the  whole  earth,  without 
reference  to  the  local  day  of  any  one  place.  The  line  chosen  is  the 

1  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance.  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury 
Department;  July,  1902,  p.  19. 


376  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

iSoth  meridian,  the  other  half  of  the  great  circle  that  passes  through 
Greenwich,  England,  and  is  known  as  the  zero  meridian.  The 
iSoth  meridian  forms  the  so-called  International  Date  Line  which  runs 
north  and  south  across  the  middle  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  date 
line  as  observed,  however,  does  not  follow  the  meridian  exactly,  but 
bends  once  to  the  west  and  once  to  the  east  to  suit  certain  political 
conditions.  The  actual  date  line  passes  through  the  middle  of 
Bering  Strait,  then  turns  to  the  southwest  until  it  reaches  the  meri- 
dian of  170°  east  longitude.  By  this  arrangement  the  Aleutian 
Islands  are  all  on  the  American  side  of  the  line.  Then  it  sweeps 
eastward  again  to  the  iSoth  meridian,  which  it  follows  to  the  Fiji 
Islands.  As  these  islands  and  many  others  near  by  belong  to  Great 
Britain,  and  are  commercially  connected  with  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  the  line  again  swings  to  the  east,  giving  the  British  pos- 
sessions the  same  calendar  day.  After  this  deflection,  the  line  returns 
to  the  iSoth  meridian,  which  it  follows  to  the  frozen  regions  of  the 
Antarctic  Ocean.  For  ships,  however,  the  iSoth  meridian  throughout 
its  length  is  the  date  line.  A  ship  in  sailing  eastward,  when  crossing 
the  date  line,  always  drops  a  day  out  of  her  calendar,  because  she 
passes  from  the  area  of  the  new  day  into  that  of  the  day  before. 
For  the  same  reason  a  ship  sailing  westward,  when  crossing  the  date 
line,  adds  another  day,  because  she  leaves  the  region  of  the  day  she 
was  in  and  enters  the  area  of  the  new  day.  If  a  ship  crosses  the 
date  line  eastward  on  Monday  she  drops  that  day  out  of  her  calendar, 
going  back  to  Sunday  again.  When  crossing  to  the  westward  on 
Monday  she  immediately  takes  up  the  next  day  ahead,  or  Tuesday. 

249,  Inter-oceanic  Canals. — The  Suez  Canal  was  the  natural  out- 
come of  the  trade  between  western  Europe  and  the  Orient.  It 
reestablished  the  old  trade  to  the  Farther  East,  —  a  trade  which  in 
successive  eras  had  enriched  the  lands  lying  about  the  Mediterranean. 
The  volume  of  traffic  through  the  Suez  Canal  amounts  to  a  value  of 
some  $700,000,000  annually,  or  approximately  one-half  the  value  of 
the  exports  of  the  United  States.  One  striking  effect  of  the  Suez 


PANAMA  CANAL  IN  CONSTRUCTION 


THE  SUEZ  CANAL  AT  PORT  SAID 


World  Commerce  377 

Canal  was  the  increase  of  the  steamship  at  the  expense  of  the  sailing 
vessel.  Some  2,000,000  tons  of  sailing  vessels  were  thus  thrown 
out  of  employment.  The  long  Cape  route  to  India  offered  poor 
opportunity  for  frequent  coaling,  and  the  steamer  was  forced  to  carry 
a  supply  of  coal  that  greatly  reduced  her  cargo  capacity.  By  the 
Suez  Canal  a  steamer  can  coal  at  Gibraltar,  Malta,  Port  Said,  and 
Aden.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sailing  vessel  did  not  find  it  of  advan- 
tage to  pay  the  toll  and  towage  of  the  canal  and  so  held  to  the  longer 
voyage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  was  at  a  considerable 
disadvantage.  Improvements  in  steamer  construction  and  in  marine 
engines  make  longer  steamer  voyages  possible  ;  but  it  is  quite  certain 
that  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  caused  a  rapid  change  in  the 
development  of  the  merchant  marine  and  of  world  commerce  in 
general. 

With  the  industrial  and  commercial  ascendency  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  consequent  shifting  of  so  large  a  part  of  the  financial 
interests  of  the  world  to  the  western  side  of  the  Atlantic,  the  opening 
of  an  Isthmian  Canal  to  connect  the  Atlantic  with  the  Pacific  becomes 
a  question  of  vital  importance,  not  only  to  the  United  States  but  to 
the  world  at  large.  This  projected  canal  when  completed  will  open  a 
short  and  direct  trade  route  between  the  great  industrial  areas  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic  and  western  South  America  and  eastern  Asia. 

250.  Trade  Outlook  of  the  Great  Nations.  —  The  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  and  Germany  are  to-day  the  chief  rivals  in  world 
trade.  The  two  latter  countries  have  the  largest  merchant  marine 
afloat,  while  the  United  States  has  by  far  the  greatest  producing  and 
exporting  capacity.  In  the  last  decade  (1891-1901)  the  growth  of 
Germany's  foreign  trade  increased  upwards  of  36  per  cent  for  imports, 
and  upwards  of  47  per  cent  for  exports.  The  United  States  during 
the  same  period  showed  an  increase  in  her  foreign  trade  amounting 
to  upwards  of  9  per  cent  for  imports  and  over  33  per  cent  for 
exports.  Great  Britain's  foreign  trade  in  the  same  interval  increased 
nearly  20  per  cent  for  imports,  and  over  13  per  cent  for  exports. 


1871                                                            1881                                                          1891      .                                                   1901 

4000 

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4000 

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X 

2800 

^ 

X" 

2400 

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2400 

Q 

w 

s 

if 

J 
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111 

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f/'    •• 

FRANCE 

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CURVE  SHOWING  INCREASE  OF  TRADF  OF 

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TH.E  FOUR  GREAT  COMMERCIAL 

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World  Commerce  379 

These  figures  reveal  the  fact  that  while  in  the  case  of  Germany  and 
Great  Britain  the  exports  and  imports  have  nearly  balanced  each 
other  (in  Great  Britain  the  enormous  importation  of  breadstuff's  pro- 
ducing an  excess  over  the  export  trade  of  the  country),  the  differ- 
ence between  the  exports  and  imports  is  very  marked  in  the  case  of 
the  United  States.  This  is  in  large  measure  the  result  of  a  vast  terri- 
tory the  productiveness  of  which  has  been  steadily  increased.  The 
comparative  sizes  of  certain  European  countries  and  the  United 
States  may  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  the  map  on  page  53.  England 
and  Germany,  by  utilizing  all  available  territory,  by  the  abundance 
of  coal  and  iron,  and  by  intelligent  development  of  resources, 
have  made  their  manufacturing  industries  so  efficient  that  much 
of  the  raw  material  used  in  their  factories  must  be  imported. 
Manufactures  give  to  England  and  Germany  the  power  to  purchase 
a  foreign  food  supply.  In  order  to  place  their  wares  in  the  world's 
markets  and  import  food-stuffs  and  raw  material  from  abroad,  each 
has  developed  its  great  merchant  marine,  and  exploited  and 
colonized  distant  lands.  This  has  offset  in  large  measure  the  small- 
ness  of  the  home  territory. 

With  the  enormous  production  of  raw  materials  and  manufactures, 
that  characterizes  the  recent  economic  development  of  the  United 
States,  there  is  a  demand  for  an  increased  merchant  marine  to  have 
the  advantages  that  will  come  when  American  goods  shall  be  carried 
in  American  ships.  With  this  adjunct,  and  with  a  more  widespread 
knowledge  of  foreign  lands  and  of  the  customs,  language,  and  needs 
of  their  inhabitants,  the  future  place  of  the  United  States  in  the 
world's  commerce  is  assured.  European  countries  rely  on  the 
United  States  to  a  great  extent  for  their  food  supply,  and  for  much 
raw  material  for  manufactures.  Many  lines  of  American  goods  are 
universally  successful  in  the  world's  markets.  These  facts  in  them- 
selves indicate  the  importance  of  America  in  international  commerce. 
The  expansion  of  the  United  States  beyond  its  own  vast  territory 
into  the  newly  acquired  lands  in  the  Pacific  and  the  Caribbean  is  of 


380 


The  Geography  of  Commerce 


the  utmost  significance.  We  have  placed  ourselves  before  the 
gates  of  Asia  on  the  one  hand,  and  in  closer  touch  with  tropical 
America  on  the  other,  and  are  thus  bidding  for  a  large  share  in 


1      ' 


GROWTH  OF  POPULATION 

OF  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES 

OF  THE  WORLD 


RUSSIA 

FRANCE 

GERMANY 

AUS-HUNGARY 

ITALY 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

SPAIN 

UNITED  STATES 


VERTICAL       MILLIONS  OF  PEOPLE 
HORIZONTAL*-  YEARS 
EA6ED  ON 
HUBNER'S  TABLE  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL 

STATISTICS 
COMPILED  Bf  DR.FR.VON  JURASCHEK 


1840 


the  trade  of  the  Orient  and  the  western  tropics.  Attention  has 
already  been  called  to  the  great  disparity  in  numbers  of  our 
vessels  in  South  American  ports  as  compared  with  those  of  England 
and  Germany.  In  the  keen  rivalry  for  the  world's  trade  we  must 


World  Commerce  381 

look  to  American  shipping,  and  maintain  that  spirit  of  commercial 
activity  abroad  that  has  played  such  an  important  part  in  the 
internal  development  of  the  United  States.  With  proper  attention 
to  the  adjuncts  of  trade;  with  a  utilization  of  her  boundless  natural 
resources ;  with  the  education  and  stimulation  of  the  industrial  and 
commercial  genius  of  her  people,  who  can  undertake  to  set  a  limit  to 
the  future  greatness  of  the  United  States  ?  This  country  is  entering 
a  larger  field.  A  knowledge  of  her  native  riches,  an  account  of  the 
part  she  is  already  playing  in  world  trade,  and  familiarity  with  ways 
in  which  she  may  play  a  larger  part,  may  well  claim  a  place  in  the 
education  of  her  citizens. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS  AND  TOPICS 

301.  What  are  the  general  industrial  and  trade  relations  of  temperate  and 
tropical  regions? 

302.  Describe  in  detail  the    methods   of    international   settlement  of  trade 
balances. 

303.  Give  an  account  of  the  origin  and  use  of  the  metric  system. 

304.  Investigate  the  work  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards. 

305.  Get  pilot  charts  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific  and  trace  the 
great  highways  of  trade. 

306.  Give  an  account  of  the  great  ship' canals  of  the  world  and  show  the 
relations  of  these  to   the  principal  branches  of  trade.     (See  monograph,  Great 
Canals  of  the  World,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department.) 

307.  Contrast    the    probable    advantages    of    a    canal  across   the   American 
isthmus  with  those  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

308.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  "active  "  and  a  "passive"  trade  ? 

309.  Trace  the  chief  cables  reaching  from  the  United   States  to   important 
regions    of    the    world.     Get   a   cable    code    and  practice  the  condensation  of 
messages.     What  about  the  commercial  importance   of  "  wireless  telegraphy  "  ? 
(See  Report  of  Treasury  Department's  Bureau  of  Statistics,  on  Submarine  and 
Land  Telephone  Systems?) 

310.  What  will  be  the  influence  of  an  Isthmian  Canal  upon  the  transcon- 
tinental railroads  of  North  America  ? 

311.  It  is  noon  at  Chicago:     What  time  is  it  at  Boston?  at  San  Francisco? 
at  London  ?  at  Constantinople  ?  at  Manila  ?  at  Honolulu  ? 


382  The  Geography  of  Commerce 

312.  What  is  a  "  liner  "  ?     What  is  a  "  tramp  ship  "  ? 

313.  On  a  map,  indicate  the  great  natural  world  divisions  for  trade.     Sum- 
marize the  descriptions  of  some  of  them   as   follows  :    (a)  What  countries  in- 
cluded?    (b)  What  products  are  characteristic?     (c)  What  are  the  means  of 
transportation  ? 

314.  Take  the  three  great  commercial  nations  mentioned  on  p.  377,  show  the 
whole  value  of  the  foreign  trade,  the   principal   productions,  and  exports  and 
imports  of  each.     Compare  Russia  with  these. 

315.  Contrast  the  advantages  of  foreign  and  domestic  commerce.     How  do 
the  relative  advantages  differ  with  different  nations  ? 

316.  What  are  the  most  promising  fields  for  the  surplus  raw  materials  of  the 
United  States?     What  for  its  surplus  manufactures  ? 

Books  to  be  Consulted 

*Lawson,  American  Industrial  Problems,  Chapter  XXX,  Problem  of  the  Future. 

**  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States.  Bureau  of  Foreign  Commerce. 
Washington,  D.C. 

*Monthly  Summaries  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  Treasury  Department.  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  See  especially  Summary  for  February,  1903,  containing  Statis- 
tical Abstract  of  the  World. 

Bancroft,  The  New  Pacific.     New  York  ;    1900. 

*Marvin,  The  American  Merchant  Marine.     New  York  ;    1902. 

Colquhoun,  The  Mastery  of  the  Pacific.     New  York  ;    1902. 

Sub- Marine  and  Land  Telegraph  Systems  of  the  World.  Summary  of  Commerce 
and  Finance;  July,  1902. 

Adams,  America's  Economic  Supremacy.     Macmillan  Co.;  1900. 

**Proceedings  of  the  International  Commercial  Congress.  Philadelphia  Com- 
mercial Museum;  1899. 

** Exports  of  Domestic  Manufactures  and  their  Distribution.  Monthly  Sum- 
mary of  Bureau  of  Statistics  ;  April  and  May,  1903. 


APPENDIX 


CURRENCIES  OF  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS  * 

A. —  Countries  with,  fixed  currencies 
The  valuations  are  those  of  the  United  States  Treasury  and  do  not  include  "  rates  of  exchange.' 


COUNTRIES 

STANDARD 

MONETARY  UNIT 

VALUE  IN 
UNITED 
STATES 
GOLD 

Argentine  Republic     .     . 
Austria-Hungary    .     .     . 

Gold  and  silver 
Gold 
Gold  and  silver 

Peso 
Crown 
Franc 

$  0.96,  5 
.20,3 

.IQ.  3 

Brazil   

Gold 

Milreis 

?A     ft 

Chile    

do 

Peso 

OT-»  w 

16  c 

Cuba     

Gold  and  silver 

Peso 

•Ov>  3 
.02,  6 

Gold 

Crown 

.26  8 

Ecuador    ...... 

do 

Sucre 

A&    7 

do 

Pounds  f  loo  pias- 

•*t°»  / 
A  QA     "I 

Gold  and  silver 

ters.) 
Franc 

.IQ     "J 

Germany  ...... 

Gold 

Mark 

21   8 

Great  Britain      .... 

do 
do 

Pound  sterling 
Rupee 

4.86,  6| 

12   A. 

Italy     

Gold  and  silver 

Lira 

IQ    1 

Gold 

Yen 

AQ     S 

Gold  and  silver 

Florin 

4O    2 

Peru     

Gold 

Sol 

4.8    7 

Portugal    ...... 

do 

I  08 

Russia  

do 

Ruble 

CI    C 

Spain                   . 

Gold  and  silver 

Peseta 

•J1'  J 
IQ    7 

Sweden  and  Norway  .     . 

Gold 
Gold  and  silver 

Crown 
Franc 

•*y>  j 
.26,8 

IQ    3 

Turkey      

Gold 

Piaster 

QA      A 

do 

Peso 

I    O"?     J. 

Venezuela      ..... 

Gold  and  silver 

Bolivar 

IQ    3 

•4;/>  J 

1  Commercial  Relations  of  the  United  States  ;  1902.    Vol.  I. 
383 


3^4 


Appendix 


B.  —  Countries  with  fluctuating  currencies 


COUNTRIES 

STANDARD 

JAN.  i,  1903 

Haikwan  tael 

$  o.S9,  4 

Silver  Boliviano 

•36,  i 

RAILROAD  MILEAGE  OF  THE  WORLD  (1900) 

Miles  of  completed  railroad  in  — 

United  States 

Europe. 176,174 

Asia       .                                    37>469 

Africa 12,501 

Australasia    ...........  14,922 

North  America  other  than  United  States 28,245 

South  America       ..........  28,357 

The  total  world's  railroad  mileage    .         .         .         .         .         .         .491,120 

—  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department. 

WORLD'S   SHIPPING  OUTPUT1 


1903 

1901 

United  Kingdom           .     .     

Tons 
1,644,654 

Tons 
1,820,368 

British  Colonies        

24,700 

7,738 

United  States      

717,771: 

324,791 

272,719 

266,860 

189,931 

85,971 

Holland      

95,794 

57»989 

Italy  

49,020 

27,715 

Japan 

7C.CC7 

20,993 

Norway  and  Sweden    

74,314 

50,666 

Denmark    

22,430 

20,934 

20,911 

30,162 

IC,977 

13,700 

China     

6,28l 

9,888 

2,040 

327 

96; 

3,399 

200 

2,733,024 

2,741,701 

1  The  "Shipping  World"  Year  Book,  1903,  p.  744. 


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INDEX 


AACHEN  (Aix-la-Chapelle),  283-284. 

Aberdeen,  256. 

Aborigines,  trading  peoples  and,  38. 

Abyssinia,  348. 

Abyssinians,  the,  36. 

Acajutla,  194. 

Acapulco,  192. 

Adelaide,  362. 

Aden,  340. 

Afghanistan,  246,  316,  331,  341. 

Africa,  345~3S7- 
peoples  of,  37. 

Agana,  165. 

Agriculture,  in  Africa,  350,  354;  Aus- 
tralia, 360-361 ;  Canada,  180 ;  Cen- 
tral America,  193, 195 ;  China,  320 ; 
Danubian  countries,  299  ;  France, 
262-264;  Germany,  281;  Great 
Britain,  253-254,256 ;  Holland,  277 ; 
Hungary,  294;  India,  332;  Ire- 
land, 257 ;  Italy,  290-291 ;  New  Zea- 
land, 363  ;  Russia,  310-311 ;  Scan- 
dinavia, 306,  307;  Siberia,  315; 
South  America,  212-213,  2I5«  2I7~ 
218, 222-223,  225, 226-227, 228,230, 
231,232-233;  Spain  and  Portugal, 
270-271;  Turkey  (Asiatic),  338; 
United  States,  52,  55,  88,  137. 
implements  of,  127-128,  130, 277. 
intensive,  97. 
schools  of,  in  India,  332. 

Aire  River,  252. 

Alabama,  production  in,  of  bauxite,  69 ; 
coal,  146;  cotton,  103;  iron,  62, 
63,  146;  tin,  69. 

Alaska,  n,  172-174. 

production  of  gold  in,  72, 174. 
salmon  fishing  in,  121. 

Alexander  Archipelago,  172. 

Alexandria,  Esiypt,  355. 

Alfalfa  grass,  97,  189. 

Algiers,  348,  356. 


Alleghany  Front,  the,  49. 

Alleghany  Plateau,  the,  46,  48-49. 

Alloys  of  metals,  67,  68,  69,  70. 

Almonds,  271,  291,  338. 

Aloes,  364. 

Alpaca,  230. 

Alps,  the,  240,  242,  246,  266,  288,  289. 

Transylvanian,  298,  299. 
Alsace-Lorraine,  283. 
Altona,  284. 
Aluminium,  69-70. 
Amapala,  194. 
Amazon  River,  210-211,  216. 
Amiens,  266. 
Amsterdam,  278. 
Anaconda  Mine,  the,  67. 
Anatolia,  338. 
Anatto,  215. 
Andes  Mountains,  210,  211-212. 

Peruvian,  229-230. 

potato  a  native  of,  98. 
Andes  Republics,  226-234. 
Anglo-Saxons,  the,  36. 
Angola,  348,  352,  357. 
Angora  goat,  339. 
Animals,  of  Africa,  346,  350-351. 

products  of  (U.S.),  113-123,  137,  159. 
Annam,  342. 
Anti-cyclones,  20,  241. 
Antigua,  202. 

Antilles,  Greater  and  Lesser,  200-202. 
Antimony,  74,  327,  338,  342. 
Antofagasta,  232. 
Antwerp,  265,  277. 
Apennines,  the,  289. 

Appalachian  Belt,  iron  production  in,  63. 
Appalachian  Region,  the,  43,  46. 
Apples,  101,  170,  189,  193,  264,  270. 
Apricots,  101,  189. 
Arabia,  14,  241,  339-340. 
Arabs,  the,  36. 
Archangel,  310,312. 


389 


39° 


Geography  of  Commerce 


Ardennes  Mountains,  261,  274,  276. 
Argentina,  212,  222-224. 

commerce  of,  186,  224,  259,  276. 
'  currency  of,  383. 

products  of,  91,  93,  117.  222>  36l« 
Arizona,  17. 

as  a  copper-producing  territory,  66. 
date  palm  cultivation  in,  HI. 
production  of  silver  in,  70. 
Arizona  Copper  Mine,  the,  67. 
Arkansas,  production  in,  of  bauxite,  69  ; 
cotton,  103  ;  manganese,  74  ;  oil- 
stones, 83. 

Arms.     See  Firearms. 
Art  work,  East  Indian,  334. 
Italian,  291-292. 
Japanese,  327. 
Asbestos,  84,  181. 
Asia  Minor,  338-339. 
Asphalt,  79-80,  190,  204,  213. 
Assafoetida,  341. 
Asuncion,  226. 
Atacama,  Desert  of,  14. 
Athens,  304. 

Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  the,  43-45. 
Atlas  Mountains,  346. 
Attar  of  roses,  301,  302. 
Auckland,  363. 
Australia,  359-363. 

commerce  of,  259,  361-362. 
inhabitants  of,  37. 
products  of,  69,  117,  164,  360-362. 
Austria-Hungary,  186,  242-243,  294-298. 
commerce    of,    with   Germany,  286, 
298;    Great  Britain,   298;    India, 
335;  Italy,  298;  Turkey,  339. 
currency  of,  383. 
products  of,  65  n.,  80,  93,  100,  no, 

115,  188,  294-295. 
Austrian  Gap,  296. 
Azores,  272. 

BAD  LANDS,  54. 
Bagdad,  339. 
Bahamas,  202,  203-204. 

sponge  industry  of,  123,  203. 
Bahia,  218. 

Baikal,  Lake,  313,  315. 
Balkan  Mountains,  301,  302. 
Balkan  Peninsula,  300-301. 
Balsam  of  Peru,  193. 


Baltimore,  45,  48,  50,  122. 
chrome  industry  in,  74. 
Baluchistan,  246,  331,  341. 
Bamboo,  332,  348. 
Banana,  356. 

Bananas,  168,  170,  189,  193,  198,  270, 365. 
Bangkok,  342. 

Banks  of  North  Atlantic,  44, 118-119, 120. 
Bantu  peoples,  the,  37. 
Barbados,  202. 
Barbary  States,  348. 
Barcelona,  272. 

Barley,  4,  94,  180,  262,  281,  306,  320,  327. 
Barranquilla,  227. 
Barytes,  production  and  use  of,  85. 
Basel,  289. 

Basins,  intermont,  56,  227. 
Batavia,  343. 
Bauxite,  69. 

Bays  of  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  44. 
Beaufort,  82. 
Bechuanaland,  347. 

Beef  packing,  113-114, 129, 143-144,  222- 
Beirut,  339. 
Belem,  219. 
Belfast,  Ireland,  257. 
Belgium,  186,  274-277. 

commerce  of,    with   Argentina,  224, 
276;  France,  268,  276;  Germany, 
276 ;  Great  Britain,  259 ;  Holland, 
276,    279;     India,    335;     United 
States^  276;  Uruguay,  276. 
currency  of,  383. 
products  of,  65  n.,  69,  275-276. 
Belgrade,  301. 
Belize,  192,  193,  194. 
Bencoolen,  343. 
Bengal,  335. 

Benguet,  164. 

Berbers,  the,  36. 

Berlin,  244,  284,  285. 

Bermudas,  204-205. 

Bicycles,  American,  164. 
English,  254. 

Big  Horn  Basin,  56. 

Bilboa,  271;  272. 

Biltmore,  forest  reserve  at,  30. 

Bird's  nest,  edible,  344. 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  49,  62,  125,  146. 

Birmingham,  England,  254. 

Bitter  Root  Mountains,  55. 


Index 


391 


Black  Hills,  the,  55. 

gold  in,  72. 

tin  in,  69. 
Blende,  68. 
Bluefields,  194. 

Blue  grass  country,  Kentucky,  49. 
Bog  ores,  61,  278. 
Bogota,  227. 
Bohemia,  294,  295. 
Bohol,  162. 

Bolivia,  69,  212,  231-232,  384. 
Bolton,  253. 
Boma,  356. 
Bombay,  335. 
Bontoc,  164. 
Book  publishing,  285. 
Boots  and  shoes,  128, 130,  159. 
Boracic  acid,  291. 
Borax,  85,  230. 
Bordeaux,  262,  266. 
Borneo,  162,  343-344- 
Bosnia,  300. 
Boston,  6,  47,  115,  140,  143. 

as  a  wool  market,  117. 
Brahmaputra  River,  336. 
Brazil,  212,  216-220,  224,  383. 
Brazil  Highland,  210. 
Breadfruit,  165,  365. 
Bremen,  284. 
Breslau,  285. 
Breweries,  Austrian,  296. 

English,  253. 

French,  262. 

German,  281. 

Irish,  257. 

Russian,  311. 

South  American,  218,  223,  231,  234. 
Brindisi,  242,  292. 
Brisbane,  362. 

Britannia  metal,  69,  74,  130. 
British  Columbia,  179,  180. 

lumber  from,  147. 

salmon  fishing  in,  121,  181. 
Brittany,  261. 

Bromine,  production  of  (U.S.),  85. 
Brussels,  276. 
Buckwheat,  98,  277,  317. 
Budapest,  246,  298. 
Buenos  Ayres,  224. 
Buffalo,  115,  146. 
Bug  River,  309. 


Building  stones,  production  of,  in  France, 
264-265  ;  Mexico,  190  ;  Porto 
Rico,  170  ;  United  States,  80-81. 

Bukharest,  300. 

Bulgaria,  300,  302. 

Bulgarians,  the,  36. 

Burgundy  Gate,  240,  267. 

Burma,  336,  342. 

Burton-on-Trent,  253. 

Butte,  55,  67. 

Butter.    See  Dairying. 

CACAO,  production  of,  in  Central  Amer- 
ica,   193;    Ceylon,  336;     Guam, 
165;    Mexico,    189;    Philippines, 
163;     Porto    Rico,     170;     South 
America,   212,  213,  215,  217,  226, 
228-231 ;  West  Indies,  203,  204. 
importation  of,  to  Great  Britain,  259. 
Cadiz,  272. 
Cairo,  352,355. 
Calcutta,  335. 

California,  production  in,  of  antimony, 
74;  asbestos ,84;  barley,  94;  beet 
sugar,  loo ;  borax,  85 ;  copper,  67  ; 
chromium,  74;  gold,  72;  granite, 
80;  hops,  no;  mercury,  73;  min- 
eral waters,  82 ;  natural  gas, 79 ;  oil, 
78 ;  peaches,  101 ;  salt,  84 ;  timber, 
57,  106 ;  tin,  69 ;  wines,  101,  130. 
Callao,  231. 
Calms,  equatorial,  13. 
Cambodia,  342. 
Camden,  117. 
Camphor,  327,  330. 
Canada,  177-184. 

commerce  of,  90,  182-184,  186,  205. 
products  of,  65  n.,  75,  78,  179-181. 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  180,  183. 
Canals,  Belgian,  274. 
Canadian,  183. 
Chinese,  321. 
Dutch,  278-279. 
English,  253,  257. 
French,  267,  268. 
German,  285-286. 
Indian,  332,  336. 
interoceanic,  157,  194,  227,  244,  328, 

355,  365,  374, 376-377. 
United  States',  135-136. 
See  Waterways. 


392 


Geography  of  Commerce 


Canary  Islands,  272-273. 

Canton,  323. 

Canton  River,  320. 

Caoutchouc.    See  Rubber. 

Cape  Colony,  347,  352,  353,  354,  355,356. 
commerce  of,  in  1902,  186. 

Cape  Fear,  44. 

Cape  Hatteras,  44. 

Cape  Lookout,  44. 

Cape  Nome,  174. 

Cape  St.  Roque,  207. 

Cape  Town,  356. 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  272. 

Caracas,  214. 

Carbonate,  61,  64. 

Cardenas,  199. 

Cardiff,  254. 

Caribbean  Islands,  200-203. 

Carinthia,  294. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  240,  299. 

Carpets,  of  Afghanistan,  341. 
American,  117,  130, 159. 
Indian,  334. 
Turkish,  301,  302,  303,  339. 

Cartagena,  Colombia,  227. 

Cartagena,  Spain,  272. 

Cascade  Mountains,  57. 

Cashmere  shawls,  334. 

Cassiquiare  River,  210. 

Catania,  292. 

Catskill  Mountains,  49,  50. 

Cattle,  movement  of  (U.  S.)i  143-144- 
pasturing  of,  in  forests,  30,  32. 

Cattle  raising,  in  Central  America,  193; 
Cuba,  198;  Hawaii,  168;  India, 
332;  Italy,  290;  Mexico,  189; 
Porto  Rico,  170;  United  States, 
56,113-115,144.  See  Stock  raising. 

Caviare,  121,317. 

Cayenne,  215. 

Cebu,  162,  165. 

Cedrela  wood,  198. 

Celebes,  343. 

Celts,  the,  36. 

Cements,  81,  199,  264,  300. 

Central  America,  192-195. 

Cereals,  production  of,  in  Hawaii,  169; 
South  America,  213,  226,  232-233 ; 
United  States,  95-97,  142.  See 
Barley,  Oats,  Rye,  and  Wheat. 

Cevennes  Mountains,  261. 


Ceylon,  335,  336. 

Champagne,  264. 

Champereco,  194. 

Champlain  Canal,  136. 

Charleroi,  275. 

Charleston,  S.C.,  6,  45,  82,  145. 

Charting  of  coasts,  372,  373. 

Cheese,  115,  180.     See  Dairying. 

Chemicals,  159,  275,  277,  284. 

Chemnitz,  284. 

Chesapeake  Bay,  45. 

Chester,  Pa.,  117. 

Chicago,  52,  54,55, 114, 115,  135, 143, 147. 

Chile,  66,  212,  232-234,  383. 

China,  319-324. 

commerce  of,  with  Great  Britain,  323 ; 
India,  334-335.  342;   Japan,  323, 
328,    329;    Russia,   323;     United 
States,  323. 
currency  of,  384. 

production  in,  of  coal,  78,  321,  324; 
rice,  99,  321;  silk,  321-323;  tea 
321-323. 

Chinaware,  284,  321. 

Chinese,  the,  36,  162,  163,  166,  168,  319. 

Chita,  315. 

Christchurch,  363. 

Christiania,  307. 

Chrome  steel,  74. 

Chromium,  74. 

Cienfuegos,  199. 

Cincinnati,  115,  129,  143. 

Cinnabar,  73,  190,  271. 

Cities,  of  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  45. 
effect  of  position  of,  on  growth,  6. 
of  fall-line,  44,  47. 
prairie,  52,  54. 

Ciudad  Bolivar,  214. 

Cleveland,  115,  146. 

Climate,  of  Africa,  346 ;  Argentina,  222 ; 

Austria-Hungary,  294;  Dominion 

of  Canada,  178 ;  Chile,  233 ;  Cuba, 

197 ;    Eurasia,   240-241 ;    Guiana, 

214;     Hawaii,    166;     Italy,  290; 

Mexico,     187-188 ;       Philippines, 

162,  163 ;  Porto  Rico,  169 ;  United 

States,  19-20 ;  Venezuela,  212. 

forests  and,  28-29. 

for  growing  cotton,  102;   maize,  90; 

oats,  94 ;  rye,  94 ;  wheat,  91-92. 
relation  of,  to  commerce,  4-5,  9-26. 


Index 


393 


Clocks,  130,  284. 

Clover,  97. 

Clyde  River,  254. 

Coal,  of  Africa,  351;   Austria-Hungary, 

295;    Belgium,   275,   276;    Brazil, 

219;    Burma,  336;    Canada,  181 ; 

China,  321,323  ;  France,  264,  268; 

Germany,  77-78,  282-283;    Great 

Britain,  77-78,  251-255;   Holland, 

278;  Japan,  78,  164,  327;   Korea, 

324;    Mexico,   190;     New    South 

Wales,  361 ;    New  Zealand,  361 ; 

Philippines,  164;    Rumania,  300; 

Russia,  311;    Siam,  342;  Siberia, 

314-315;      South      Africa,     355; 

United  States,  75-78  ;  Wales,  254. 

distribution  of  (map),  78. 

lake  commerce  in  (U.S.),  147. 

movement  of  (U.S.),  140-141,  146. 

world's  production  of  (diagram),  77. 

Coal  oil,  78-79.     See  Petroleum. 

Coastal  Plain  regions,  43-46. 

Coast  line,  of  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  45. 
influence  of,  on  commerce,  4, 237-239. 

Coast  Ranges,  the,  58. 

Cobalt,  74-75,  233. 

Cocaine,  230. 

Cochin  China,  342. 

Cocoanuts,  163,  165,  166,  170,  227,  332, 

336,  364.  365- 

Cocus  wood,  198. 

Codfish,  120, 173,  184. 

Coffee,  of  Africa,  350;  Arabia,  340; 
Brazil,  217-218  ;  Central  America, 
193;  Ceylon,  336;  Cuba,  198; 
Guam,  165;  Hawaii,  168;  India, 
332;  Java,  343;  Mexico,  188,  192; 
Porto  Rico,  170,  172;  Samoa,  166; 
South  America,  212,  213,  215,  225, 
226,  228,  229,  230,  231 ;  Turkey, 
338 ;  West  Indies,  203. 
distribution  of  (map),  217. 
world's  production  (1900),  218. 

Coke,  76,  130. 

Cold  storage,  102,  113-114,  129,  223,  224. 

Collars  and  cuffs,  130. 

Colleges,  instruction  in  forestry  in,  30. 

Colombia,  208,  212,  213,  226-228. 
trade  of,  with  Cuba,  200. 

Colombo,  336. 

Colon,  227. 


Colorado,  production  in,  of  beet  sugar, 

100;    cattle,  114,  143;    coal,  146; 

copper,  67 ;   granite,  80 ;    oil,  78 ; 

silver,  70;  wool,  116. 
Colorado  River,  57. 
Columbia  River,  57,  119,  121,  142. 
Columbia,  S.C.,  45. 
Columbus,  Ohio,  126. 
Commerce,  man  element  in,  34-40. 
relation  between,  and  climate,  4-5, 

9-26;      coast     line,    .4,    237-239; 

islands,  4;    rivers,  2;    soil,  3-4; 

weather,  20-24. 

Commodities,  movement  of,  131-147. 
Comstock  Lode,  the,  56,  70. 
Connecticut,  industries  of,  130. 
Consolidation  of  railroads,  137. 
Constantinople,  246,  301-302,  339. 
Consuls,  American,  153. 
Copaiba,  213. 
Copenhagen,  308. 
Copper,  of  Africa,  351;    Canada,  181 ; 

China,  321 ;  Cuba,  199 ;  Germany, 

282;    Great  Britain,  256;    India, 

334;    Japan,    327;     Korea,    324; 

Mexico,   190,  192 ;    Norway,  307 ; 

Philippines,  164;  Porto  Rico,  170; 

Russia,    314,    315 ;     Siam,    342 ; 

South  America,  66,  213,  218,  219, 

223,  227,  230,  231,  233;  Spain  and 

Portugal,  66,  271;    Sweden,  306; 

United  States,  65-67. 
derivation  of  name,  339. 
uses  of,  67. 

world's  production  of  (diagram),  66. 
Copper  Queen  Mine,  67. 
Copra,  163,  164,  165,  166,  343,  365,  366. 
Cordilleran  Highland,  187. 
Cordilleran  Region,  the,  55. 
Corfu,  304. 
Corinto,  194. 
Cork,  257. 

Corn,  4,  89-91,  150,  180,  188,  223,  299. 
Corn-belt,  the,  52,  87,  89-91,  131. 
Cornell,  forestry  taught  at,  30. 
Cornwall,  production  of  tin  in,  69,  254. 
Corsets,  130. 
Corsica,  290. 
Corundum,  83,  338. 
Cossacks,  the,  36. 
Costa  Rica,  192,  193,  194. 


394 


Geography  of  Commerce 


Cotton,  distribution  of  (map),  102. 
Egyptian,  in,  355. 
movement  of  (U.S.),  144-146. 
sea-island,  102-103. 
Cotton-belt,  the,  102. 
Cotton  growing,  in  Africa,  350;  Brazil, 

217-218;    Central  America,  193; 

China,  321;    Egypt,  355;    India, 

332,  335;  Mexico,  189;  Peru,  230; 

Porto    Rico,    170;    Samoa,    166; 

Turkey,  338;  United  States,  45-46, 

87,  102-103,  150. 
Cotton  manufacturing,  103,  125^  128, 130, 

145-146,  159,  218,  252,   254,  265, 

266,  275, 283, 286, 316, 321, 327,  342. 
Cotton-seed  oil,  104. 
Coventry,  254. 
Cripple  Creek,  55. 

Crown  colonies,  British,  324,  336,  342. 
Cryolite,  69. 
Cuba,  99,  197-200,  383. 
Cumberland  Valley,  the,  48. 
Curasao,  202. 
Currants,  302-303. 
Currencies,  national,  383-384. 
Customs  League,  German,  286. 
Cutlery,  Belgian,  375. 
British,  352. 
German,  283. 
Cyclones,  20. 
Cyprus,  339. 

DAIRYING,  in  Argentina,  223 ;  Canada, 
180;  Denmark,  307;  France,  264; 
Germany,  282;  Great  Britain,  256; 
Holland,  277;  Italy,  290;  Ontario, 
180;  Sweden,  306;  Switzerland, 
289;  United  States,  88,  114,  115. 

Dalmatia,  300. 

Danube  River,  240,  281,  296,  299,  300. 

Darlington,  252. 

Date  line,  international,  374-376. 

Date  palm,  in,  270. 

Dates,  339,  340. 

Deccan  table-land,  331. 

Decimal  system  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures, 370. 

Delagoa  Bay,  356. 

Delaware,  granite  quarries  in,  80. 

Delaware  Bay,  45. 

Delaware  River,  48. 


Denmark,  307-308,  383. 

Denver,  55. 

Detroit,  143. 

Diamonds,  of  Africa,  351,  355;  Brazil, 

218;  British  Guiana,  215. 
Dinaric  Mountains,  294. 
Dneister  River,  309. 
Dnieper  River,  309. 
Dominica,  202. 

Don  River  (Russia),  310;   (Scot.),  252. 
Dresden,  284. 
Drumlins,  46. 
Dublin,  257. 
Duluth,  135,  143. 
Dundee,  122,  255. 
Dunedin,  363. 
Dunkirk,  265,  267. 
Durban,  356. 
Duties,  British,  259. 
Dwarfs,  37. 

Dyestuffs,  163-164,  189,  227,  230. 
Dyewoods,  164,  170,  198-199,  225,  350. 

EAST  INDIES  (Dutch),  279,  343. 
East  Liverpool,  O.,  potteries  at,  129. 
East  London,  South  Africa,  356. 
East  Tennessee  Valley,  the,  48. 
Ebony,  170,  189,  348. 
Ecuador,  212,  228-229,  383. 
Edinburgh,  255. 
Edmonton,  180. 
Eggs,  production  of,  in  United  States,  118. 

sea  birds',  308. 

Egypt,  2,  14,  36,  91,  348,  353,  355,  383. 
Eider  down,  308. 
Elbe  River,  281,  284,  285. 
Electricity,  use  of,  in  separating  ore,  62. 
Electric  roads,  United  States,  139. 
Eleusine  grass,  350. 
Emeralds,  190,  227. 
Emery,  83,  338. 
England.     See  Great  Britain. 
Ensilage,  89-90. 
Erie,  146. 

Erie  Canal,  135-136. 
Eskimos,  25. 
Esparto  grass,  271,  272. 
Essen,  283. 
Estuaries,  122. 
Euphrates  River,  338. 
Eurasia,  237-247. 


Index 


395 


FALL-LINE,  44-45,  47, 133. 

Farming.     See  Agriculture. 

Faroe  Islands,  308. 

Fayal,  272. 

Fertilizers,  81-82,  233,  264. 

Figs,  101,  165,  189,  271,  291,  302,  338. 

Fiji  Islands,  365. 

Finger  lakes,  50. 

Finland,  309. 

Firearms,  253,  275,  283,  301,  321,  328. 

Fisheries,  of  Alaska,  173,  174 ;  Canada, 
181 ;  Germany,  283  ;  Great  Britain, 
256 ;  Newfoundland,  184 ;  Nor- 
way, 306-307;  Siberia,  314;  United 
States,  118-122. 

Fiume,  298. 

Fjords,  305. 

Flagstones,  80. 

Flax,  production  of,  in  Argentina,  223; 
Belgium,  275,  276;  France,  266; 
Ireland,  257;  Italy,  291,  292;  Rus- 
sia, 311 ;  United  States,  104. 

Flaxseed,  lake  commerce  in  (U.S.),  147. 

Florence,  291-292. 

Florida,  production  of  cotton,  103  ;  fruit, 
101 ;  phosphates,  82 ;  sponges,  123. 

Florida  Peninsula,  the,  46. 

Flour,  lake  commerce  in  (U.S.),  147. 

Flour  mills,  of  Brazil,  218;  Hungary, 
295,  298 ;  Russia,  311 ;  United 
States,  92,  125,  142-143. 

Fluorite,  production  and  use  of,  85. 

Flushing,  Holland,  279. 

Food  plants  of  United  States,  89-102. 

Forage  crops,  97-98,  189,  258,  301. 

Forecasts,  weather,  21-23. 

Forest  reserves,  30. 

Forestry,  bureau  of,  in  Philippines,  164. 
in  Germany,  30,  283. 
as  a  science,  29-32. 

Forests,  27-32,  49. 

of  Argentina,  223 ;  Austria-Hungary, 
295;   Canada,   178,  179-180;   Co- 
lombia, 227 ;  Cuba,  198-199 ;   Ha- 
waii,   168;    India,   332;     Mexico, 
189 ;   Paraguay,  225 ;    Philippines, 
163-164;  Russia,  310,  314;  Scan- 
dinavia, 305-306;    United   States, 
57,  87-88,  104-108. 
products  of  (U.  S.),  104-109,  137. 
See  Timber  and  Trees. 


Formosa,  162,  326,  330. 

Forth,  Firth  of,  254. 

Fourmies,  266. 

France,  36, 65  n.,  75,  93, 100,  242,  261-268. 
commerce  of,  in  1902,  186. 
commerce  of,  with  Belgium,  268,  276; 
Central  America,  195 ;  Cuba,  200 ; 
Great    Britain,    259,    268 ;     Italy, 
293;    Japan,  329;    Mexico,   190; 
Russia,  262,  268 ;  South  America, 
213,  224,  228  ;  Spain,  273  ;  Switzer- 
land, 289;   Turkey,  339;    United 
States,  262,  268. 
currency  of,  383. 

possessions  of,  in  Africa,  347,  348; 
Oceanica,  364. 

Franklin  Furnace,  N.J.,  74. 

Frazer  River,  178. 

Free  Town,  357. 

Freight  transported  in  United  States  in 
1901,  137. 

Friendly  Islands,  365-366. 

Fruit  culture,  in  Canada,  180;  United 
States,  101-102. 

Fruits  grown  in  Africa,  350 ;  Argentina, 
223 ;  Central  America,  193  ;  Cuba, 
198;  Guam,  165;  Hawaii,  168; 
Mexico,  189 ;  Philippines,  163 ; 
Porto  Rico,  170;  West  Indian 
Islands,  203-204. 

Furs,  production  of,  in  Alaska,  173,  174 ; 
Canada,  178,  180;  Siberia,  314. 

Fustic,  198,  199,  213. 

GALENA,  67,  68. 

Galveston,  145. 

Gal  way,  257. 

Ganges  River,  236. 

"  Garden  of  Canada,"  180. 

Gas,  natural,  79. 

Gateshead,  252. 

Gems  found  in  Africa,  351 ;  Burma,  336 ; 
Mexico,  190;  Persia,  341;  Siam, 
342 ;  United  States,  82. 

Genoa,  292. 

Georgetown,  British  Guiana,  215. 

Georgia,  production  in,  of  asbestos,  84; 
bauxite,  69;  clays,  81 ;  corundum, 
83;  cotton,  103;  granite,  80;  man- 
ganese, 74;  rice,  99;  rosin,  130; 
turpentine,  130. 


396 


Geography  of  Commerce 


Germans,  the,  36,  50,  242,  243,  280-287. 

German  silver,  75. 

Germany,  65  n.,  74,  75,  77-78,  84,  93, 100, 

no,  115,  242,  280-287. 
commerce  of,  in  1902,  186. 
commerce     of,    with    Austria-Hun- 
gary,   286,    298 ;     Belgium,    276 ; 
Central  America,  193;  Cuba,  200; 
Great  Britain,  259,286;  Holland, 
279;    India,  334-335;   Italy,    293; 
Japan,    328,   329;    Mexico,    190; 
Russia,    286,    317;    Samoa,   166; 
South  America,  213,  220,  224,  228, 
230,234;  Switzerland,  289 ;  United 
States,  286,  287. 
currency  of,  383. 
dependencies    pf,    in    Africa,    347; 

Oceanica,  364. 
forestry  in,  30. 
trade  outlook  of,  377-379. 

Ghent,  275. 

Ginger.     See  Spices. 

Glacial  period,  traces  of,  46-47,  52. 

Glass  making,  Bohemia,  296. 

Gloucester,  fishing  industry  at,  120,  181. 

Glove  industry  in  Denmark,  308. 

Gobi,  Desert  of,  14. 

Gold,  of  Africa,  351;  Alaska,  173,  174; 
Australia,  361;   Austria-Hungary, 
295;    Burma,  336;    Canada,  181 ; 
India,  334;  Korea,  324;   Mexico, 
189-190;  New  Guinea,  365 ;   Phil- 
ippines,   164;    Porto    Rico,   170; 
Siam,   342;    Siberia,  314;    South 
Africa,  355 ;  South  America,  213, 
214,  215,   218,   223,  227,   228-230, 
233;  United  States,  58,  60,  71-73. 
copper  and  lead  as  by-products  of,  67. 
uses  of,  73. 
world's  production  of  (diagram) ,  72. 

Gomul  Pass,  341. 

Good  Road  Movement  (U.  S.),  140. 

Gorlitz,  284. 

Gothenburg,  306. 

Grain,  lake  commerce  in  (U.S.),  147. 
movement  of  (U.  S.),  141-143. 

Grain  elevators,  92,  135. 

Gran  Chaco,  225. 

Grand  Canon,  the,  57. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway,  183. 

Granite,  80. 


Graphite,  76,  84,  314,  336. 
Great  Basin,  56. 

Great  Britain,  4,  69,  77-78,  84,  249-259. 
colonies  of,  204-205,  324,  336,  342, 

347,  363,  364,  365- 
commerce  of,  in  1902,  186. 
commerce  of,  with  Africa,  353 ;   Ar- 
gentina, 259;  Australia,  259,  361- 
362;  Austria-Hungary,  298;    Bel- 
gium, 259;  Canada,  259;  Central 
America,  195;  China,  323;  Cuba, 
200;  France,  259,  268;  Germany, 
259,     286 ;     Holland,     259,     279 ; 
Hong-Kong,  324;  India,  259,  334- 
335;  Italy,  293;  Japan,  328,  329; 
Mexico,  190;  Persia,  341;  Russia, 
259,  31?;    South    America,   208- 
209,  213,  215,  220,  224,  225,  228, 
231,  234,  259;    Spain,  273;    Swit- 
zerland, 289 ;  Turkey,  339 ;  United 
States,  90,  118,259;  West  Indian 
Islands,  204. 
currency  of,  383. 
protectorates  of,  339,  341. 
trade  outlook  of,  377-379. 
trade  relations  of,  with  Canada,  182. 

Greater  Antilles,  200-202. 

Great  Lakes,  fishing  industry  on,  121. 
as  a  highway  of  commerce,  134-135. 

Great  Plain  of  Europe,  239,  242,  280. 

Great  Plains  (U.S.),  54-55. 
semi-arid  regions  of,  97. 

Great  Valley,  the,  48,  50. 

Greece,  302-304. 

Greenland,  308. 

Greenock,  254. 

Grenada,  202. 

Greytown,  194. 

Grindstones,  83,  252. 

Groningen,  279. 

Guadeloupe,  202. 

Guam,  165-166. 

Guanajuato,  190. 

Guano,  82,  230,  233,  234. 

Guatemala,  192,  193,  194. 

Guavas,  170. 

Guayaquil,  229. 

Guiana,  208,  212,  214-216. 

Guiana  Highland,  210. 

Gulf  Stream,  the,  10,205. 

Gums,  163,  215,  225,  350,  354. 


Index 


397 


Gum  tragacanth,  302,  340. 
Gutta-percha,  163. 
Gypsum,  81-82. 

HAITI,  200,  204. 

Hakodate,  329. 

Halifax,  England,  252. 

Halifax,  N.S.,  183-184. 

Hamburg,  284. 

Hamilton,  Bermuda  Islands,  205. 

Hanley,  253. 

Hardwoods,  104,  106,  108,  163,  170,  178, 

189,  193,  198,  305-306,  348. 
Hartlepool,  252. 
Havana  (Habana),  199. 
Havre,  265,  267. 
Hawaii,  99,  142,  166-169. 
Hay,  97,  180,  361. 

Heat  constant  of  plants  and  animals,  18. 
Helderburg  Mountains,  49,  50. 
Hematite,  61,  64,  256,  351. 
Hemp,  104,  163,  164,  172,  189,  291,  292, 

299-  3".  330- 
Herat,  341. 

Herring,  120-121,  184,  256. 
Herzegovina,  300. 
Hexam,  251. 

Hides,  159, -164,  168,  170,  171,  192,  193, 
213,  215,  217,  223,  225,  227,  228, 
229,  230,  317,  335,  364.  . 
Highland  Rim  of  Alleghany  Plateau,  49. 
Himalaya  Mountains,  331. 

Passes  of  the,  341. 
Hindustan,  331-332. 
Hoangho  River,  319,  320,  321. 
Hobart,  363,  371. 
Hog  raising,  in  Germany,  281, 282 ;  Great 

Britain,  256;  United  States,  115. 
Holland,  259,  274-279,  343,  364,  383. 
Honduras,  192,  193,  194. 
Honey,  170,  301,  302,  351. 
Hong-Kong,  323,  324,  329. 
Honolulu,  169. 
Honshu,  326. 

Hops,  no,  256,  262,  277,  281,  295,  361. 
Horses,  American,  117-118. 

Arabian,  340. 

Belgian,  276. 

Mexican,  189. 
Huddersfield,  252. 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  180. 


Hudson  River,  48,  50,  135-136,  147. 
Hungarian  Gate,  296. 
Hungary.     See  Austria-Hungary. 
Hurricanes,  West  Indian,  20, 169, 197, 202. 

IBERIAN  PENINSULA,  242, 270-271.  See 
Spain  and  Portugal. 

Iceland,  308. 

Idaho,  production  in,  of  antimony,  74; 
silver,  70;  wool,  116. 

Illinois,  production  in,  of  agricultural 
implements,  127,  130;  coal,  76, 
146;  corn,  89;  cows  (milch),  115; 
fluorite,  85 ;  hay,  98 ;  liquors  (dis- 
tilled), 130;  oats,  94;  peaches, 
101 ;  pig  iron,  146;  potatoes,  98. 
meat  packing  industry  in,  129. 

Iloilo,  165. 

Imperial  Commercial  Museum,  Japa- 
nese, 328. 

India,  38,  247,  331-336. 

.      commerce  of,  186,  259,  328,  329,  334. 
currency  of,  383. 
products  of,  93,  99,  332-334. 
sugar  a  native  of,  99. 

Indiana,  center  of  population  of  United 

States  in,  96. 

production  in,  of  coal,  146 ;  corn,  89 ; 
cows  (milch),  115;  hay,  98;  oats, 
94 ;  oilstones,  83 ;  natural  gas,  79. 

Indianapolis,  115. 

Indian  corn,  89-90,  188,  290,  299. 

Indian  meal,  89. 

Indian  Ocean,  monsoons  in'the,  14. 

Indian  Territory,  103,  143. 

Indians,  American,  37,  50. 

Indigo,  possibilities  for  growing,  in  United 

States,  no. 

production  of,  in  Central  America, 
193 ;  China,  321 ;  India,  332,  335 ; 
Philippines,  163. 

Indo-China,  155,  336,  341-342. 

Indus  River,  241,  336. 

Iowa,  production  in,  of  barley,  94;  coal, 
146;  corn,  89;  cows  (milch),  115; 
hay,  97-98;  oats,  94;  potatoes,  98. 

Ireland,  94,  257-258. 

Irish,  the,  36. 

Iron,  movement  of,  in  United  States,  146. 
production  of,  in  Africa,  351 ;  Austria- 
Hungary,    295;     Belgium,     274; 


398 


Geography  of  Commerce 


China,  321;  France,  65  n.,  264; 
Germany,  65  n.,  282-283;  Great 
Britain,  254,  256;  India,  334;  Italy, 
291;  Japan,  327;  Korea,  324; 
Mexico,  190;  Philippines,  164; 
Russia,  65  n.,3ii;  South  America, 
213,  219,  227;  Spain  and  Portugal, 
271 ;  Sweden,  306 ;  United  States, 
61-65,  128,  130 ;  Wales,  254. 

Iron  Gates  of  Danube,  298,  299. 

Iron  Mountain,  51. 

Iron  ore,  bog,  61,  278. 

Iron  pyrite,  61,  74. 

Iron  works,  English,  253. 

Irrawaddy  River,  336. 

Irrigation,  15-18,  91,  97,  no,  168,  270, 
271,  290,  320,  332. 

Islands,  relation  between,  and  com- 
merce, 4. 

Isotherms,  11-13. 

Isthmian  Canal,  157,  194,  227,  328,  365, 

374,  377- 
Italians,  the,  36,  243. 

in  Argentina,  224. 
Italy,  91,  93,  289-293. 

commerce  of,  186,  224,  293,  298. 

currency  of,  383. 

possessions  of,  in  Africa,  347. 
Ivory,  of  Africa,  350. 

fossil,  315. 

vegetable,  227,  228. 
Ixtle,  189. 

JADE,  336. 

Jamaica,  200-202,  205. 

Japan,  4,  n,  247,  326-329. 

commerce  of,  186,  323,  328,  329. 

currency  of,  383. 

products  of,  78,  164,  326-327. 
Japan  Current,  the,  10. 
Japanese,  the,  36,  166. 
Jasper,  Mexican,  190. 
Java,  38,  343. 
Jaxartes  River,  316. 
Jewelry,  130. 
Jews,  the,  36. 
Johannesburg,  355. 
Jura  Mountains,  261,  267. 
Jute,  189,  332. 

Jute  manufacturing,  265,  296,  328,  334. 
Jutland,  Peninsula  of,  307. 


KABUL,  341. 

Kafir  corn,  97. 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  Ship  Canal,  286. 

Kalahari  Desert,  347. 

Kamchatka,  315. 

Kansas,  production  in,  of  coal,  146 ; 
corn,  89 ;  cotton,  103 ;  cows  (milch) , 
115  ;  hay,  97  ;  potatoes,  98  ;  salt,  84. 

Kansas  City,  55,  114,  115,  143. 

Kaolin,  81,  213,  296. 

Karachi,  335. 

Kashmir,  334. 

Kentucky,  production  in,  of  coal,  146; 
cotton,  103;  hemp,  104;  natural 
gas,  79;  tobacco,  109-110. 

Key  West,  200. 

Khartum,  352,  355. 

Khyber  Pass,  341. 

Kimberley,  355. 

Kirghis,  the,  36. 

Kittatinny  Valley,  the,  48. 

Kiusiu  Island,  326,  327,  329. 

Klamath  River,  57. 

Klondike,  181. 

Kobe,  329. 

Kongo  Free  State,  348,  352,  356-357. 

Kongo  River,  345,  351. 

Korea,  u,  324,  329. 

Krefeld,  283. 

Krupp  manufacturing  plant,  283. 

Kurile  Islands,  326. 

LABOR,  cheapness  of,  in  Italy,  291. 
conditions,  in  tropics,  24. 

Labrador,  25,  184. 

Labrador  Current,  184. 

Lace,  Belgian,  275,  276. 

Lachine  rapids,  183. 

Lacquering,  Japanese,  327. 

La  Guaira,  214. 

Lake  commerce  (U.S.),  134-135. 

Lake  Region  (U.S.),  51-52. 

Lake  Superior  district,  production  in,  of 
copper,  67;  iron  ore,  63-64,  128. 

La  Paz,  232. 

Lapis  lazuli,  341. 

La  Plata  River,  210-211. 

La  Union,  Salvador,  194. 

Lead,  production  of,  in  Canada,  181 ; 
China,  321 ;  Germany,  282;  Italy, 
291 ;  Mexico,  190, 192;  Newfound- 


Index 


399 


land,  184;  Russia,  314;  South 
America,  213,  218,  219,  230 ;  Spain, 
68,  271 ;  United  States,  67-68. 

uses  of,  68. 
Leadville,  55,  68,  74. 
Leather  manufacturing,  128-129, 13°»  I9°i 

300, 316. 

Lebanon  Valley,  the,  48. 
Leeds,  252. 

Leeward  Islands,  202,  204. 
Leghorn  straw,  291. 
Lehigh  Valley,  the,  48. 
Leipzig,  285. 
Leith,  255. 
Lemons,  101,  264. 
Lena  River  Basin,  315. 
Leopoldville,  352. 
Lepanto,  164. 
Lesser  Antilles,  202. 
Levuka,  365. 
Leyte,  162. 

Liberia,  348,  353,  357. 
Libyan  Desert,  346. 
Liege,  275. 

Lignite,  164,  219,  223,  282,  291,  295,  338. 
Lignum  vitae,  198. 
Lille,  266. 
Lily  bulbs,  205. 
Lima,  231. 
Limerick,  257. 

Limestone,  quarrying  and  use  of,  81, 199. 
Limoges,  265. 
Limonite,  61. 
Limpopo  River,  346. 
Linen,  Belgian,  275. 

French,  265,  266. 

Irish,  257. 

Russian,  311. 
Linseed  oil,  104. 
Lisbon,  272. 
Liverpool,  252,  253. 
Livingston,  Guatemala,  194. 
Llano  Estacado,  54. 
Lobsters,  181,  184. 

Locomotives,    American,    abroad,    192, 
200,  318,  328. 

French  manufacture  of,  266. 
Loess,  319. 
Logwood,  193,  198. 
Lombardy,  Plain  of,  289,  290,  292. 
London,  252,  253,  256. 


Londonderry,  257. 
Long  House  of  the  Iroquois,  50. 
Loochoo  Islands,  326. 
Lorenzo  Marquez,  356. 
Louisiana,  production  in,  of  cotton,  103; 
rice,  99;  sugar,  99;  tobacco,  no. 
Lucerne  (alfalfa  grass),  97,  189. 
Lumber,  44,  108-109,  178,  179,  348-350. 

distinction  between,  and  timber,  105. 

lake  commerce  in  (U.S.),  147. 

movement  of  (U.S.),  146-147. 
Luzon,  162. 
Lyons,  265,  266. 

MACAO,  323. 

Macaroni,  93,  290. 

Mackenzie  River,  178. 

Madagascar,  364. 

Madeira  Islands,  272-273. 

Madeira  River,  211. 

Madras,  335. 

Madrid,  272. 

Madura,  343. 

Magdalena  River,  227. 

Magnesite,  84-85. 

Magnetite,  61,  62,  170,  199. 

Mahogany,  189,  193,  198,  348. 

Maine,  production   in,  of  horses,   118; 

paper,  129;  potatoes,  98. 
shipbuilding  in,  140,  141. 

Maize  growing,  in  Africa,  350;  Central 
America,  193  ;  China,  320 ;  France, 
262;  Guam,  165;  Hungary,  91, 
295 ;  Italy,  91 ;  Philippines,  163 ; 
Porto  Rico,  170 ;  Russia,  91 ; 
United  States,  90-91. 

Malacca,  342. 

Malaga,  272. 

Malay  Archipelago,  343-344. 
inhabitants  of,  37. 

Malay  Peninsula,  tin  from,  69,  254. 

Malmo,  306. 

Manchester,  England,  253. 

Manchester  Ship  Canal,  253. 

Manchuria,  315,  319. 

Mandalay,  336. 

Manganese,  74,  219,  233,  306,  315,  317. 

Mangoes,  189,  334. 

Manila,  165. 

Manioc  (mandioca) ,  350. 

Manitoba,  Province  of,  179. 


4OO 


Geography  of  Commerce 


Manufactures,  of  Argentina,  223;  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, 295-297;  Belgium, 
275,  276 ;  Canada,  181 ;  Chile,  234 ; 
China,  321 ;  France,  264-265,  285  ; 
Germany,  283-285,  385 ;  Great 
Britain,  252,  253,  254,  255,  385; 
Holland,  275,  276;  India,  334; 
Italy,  291;  Japan,  327;  Mexico, 
190;  Russia,  311,317;  Spain,  272; 
Switzerland,  289;  United  King- 
dom, 385 ;  United  States,  124-126, 
130.  159,  385-388. 
importation  of,  to  Central  America, 

193-194. 

moved  by  rail  (U.S.),  137. 
world's  distribution  of  (map),  367. 

Manures.     See  Fertilizers. 

Manzanillo,  192. 

Maracaibo,  214. 

Marbles,  production  of,  in  France,  264 ; 
Italy,  291 ;  Mexico,  190 ;  Porto 
Rico,  170;  United  States,  80-81. 

Marl,  81. 

Marne  River,  267. 

Marseilles,  266. 

Martha's  Vineyard,  47. 

Martinique,  202. 

Maryland,  production  in,  of  coal,  146; 
granite,  80;  horses,  118;  oysters, 

44.  ISO- 
Massachusetts,  production  in,  of  asbestos, 

84;   boots  and   shoes,   128,   130; 

cotton  goods,  128,  130;  emery,  83; 

paper,  129;  whetstones,  83 ;  whips, 

130;  woolen  manufactures,  117. 
Matanzas,  199. 
Matches,  171,  306,  328. 
Mate,  217-218,  223,  225,  226. 
Mauritius,  364. 
Mazatlan,  192. 
Meat  packing,  114, 115-116, 129, 143-144, 

222-223. 

Mekong  River,  342. 
Melanesia,  365. 
Melbourne,  362. 
Menam  River,  342. 
Mercury,  73,  271-272,  295,  314,  342. 
Merino  sheep,  116-117,  271,  361. 
Mersey  River,  252. 
Mescal,  189. 
Mesopotamia,  338. 


Messina,  292. 

Metals  of  United  States,  60-61. 

Metric  system,  370. 

Meuse  River,  274. 

Mexico,  187-192. 

commerce  of,  186,  190-192,  207. 

Mexico,  City  of,  192. 

Mica,  production  and  use  of,  85. 

Michigan,  production  in,  of  beet  sugar, 
ico ;  bromine,  85;  copper,  66-67 ; 
graphite,  84 ;  iron,  63;  manganese, 
74;  mineral  waters,  82;  peaches, 
101 ;  pine  timber,  105 ;  potatoes, 
98;  rye,  94;  salt,  83;  sheep,  116. 

Micronesia,  364-365. 

Migration  of  peoples,  37-38. 

Milan,  292. 

Milk,  condensed,  289.    See  Dairying. 

Millet,  97,  320,  332,  350. 

Millstones,  83,  92,  93. 

Milwaukee,  115,  135,  143. 

Minas  Geraes,  218. 

Mindanao,  162. 

Mindoro,  162. 

Mine  Lamotte,  Mo.,  75. 

Minerals,  of  Africa,  351 ;  of  Appalachian 
Highland,  49;  Australia,  361; 
Austria,  294,  295;  Balkan  Moun- 
tains, 301;  Belgium,  275-276; 
Canada,  181 ;  Ceylon,  336;  China, 
321 ;  Cuba,  199 ;  Germany,  282- 
283;  Great  Britain,  256;  India, 
3341  Japan,  327;  Mexico,  189- 
190;  Newfoundland,  184;  Nor- 
way, 307;  Philippines,  164;  Porto 
Rico,  170;  Russia,  314;  Siberia, 
314;  South  Africa,  355;  South 
America,  213,  218-219,  223,  227, 
228-229,  230,  231,  233;  Spain  and 
Portugal,  271;  Sweden,  306;  Tur- 
key (Asiatic),  338;  United  States 
(metallic substances), 60-75,  (non- 
metallic),  75-85. 
lake  commerce  in  (U.S.),  147. 

Mineral  waters,  82. 

Mining  in  United  States,  49,  55,  56. 

Minneapolis,  92,  125,  142,  143. 

Minnesota,  production  in,  of  barley,  94; 
cows  (milch),  115;  iron,  63;  oats, 
94;  pine  timber,  105;  potatoes,  98; 
rye,  94. 


Index 


401 


Missions,  Spanish,  in  California,  58. 
Mississippi,  cotton  growing  in,  103. 
Mississippi  River,  133. 
Missouri,  production  in,  of  barytes,  85  ; 

coal,  146;  corn,  89;  cotton,  103; 

cows    (milch),  115;    granite,  80; 

hay,  97 ;  lead,  68  ;  potatoes,  98. 
Mobile,  45. 
Mocha,  340. 
Mohair  cloth,  302,  339. 
Mohawk  Valley,  the,  50,  51. 
Molasses,  170,  215. 
Moldau  River,  298. 
Moluccas,  343. 
Mongolia,  n,  241,319. 
Monrovia,  357. 

Monsoons,  14,   241,   331-332,  336,  343. 
Montana,  production  in,  of  cattle,  114, 

143;    copper,  66;   corundum,  83; 

gold,  72;  sheep,  116;  silver,  70. 
Montenegro,  300. 
Montevideo,  225. 
Montreal,  183. 
Montserrat,  202. 
Morava  River,  301. 
Moravia,  294,  295. 
Mormons,  56. 
Morocco,  348,  356. 
Moscow,  310,311. 
Mother-of-pearl,  338,  340,  366. 
Moville,  257. 
Mules,  117-118,  189. 
Mulhausen,  283. 
Munich,  284. 
Muscat,  340. 

NAGASAKI,  329. 

Namur,  275. 

Nantucket,  47,  48-49. 

Naphtha,  314,  317,  341. 

Naples,  292. 

Narbonne,  266. 

Natal,  347,  353,  356. 

Natural  gas,  79. 

Navigator  Group,  166,  365. 

Nebraska,  production  in,  of  beet  sugar, 
loo ;  corn,  89;  cows,  115;  hay, 
98  ;  oats,  94;  potatoes,  98  ;  rye,  94. 

Negroes,  37. 

Negros,  162. 

Nelson  River,  177. 

2D 


Netherlands.     See  Belgium  and  Holland. 

Nevada,  irrigation  in,  17. 

production  in,  of  borax,  85 ;  silver, 
70;  sulphur,  84. 

New  Brunswick,  178,  180. 

New  Caledonia,  365. 

Newcastle-on-Tyne,  251. 

New  England,  6,  46-47,  76,  80,  88,  101, 
117,  125. 

Newer  Appalachian  Belt,  the,  46,  48. 

Newfoundland,  n,  184. 

New  Guinea,  364-365. 

New  Hampshire,  83,  85. 

New  Jersey,  62,  68,  80,  81,  130. 

New  Mexico,  production  in,  of  cattle, 
114 ;  copper,  67  ;  mica,  85 ;  sheep, 
116;  turquoise,  82. 

New  South  Wales,  360,  362. 

New  York  City,  6,  50,  147. 

New  York  State,  agriculture  in,  88. 

production  in,  of  beet  sugar,  100; 
bluestone,  80;  buckwheat,  98; 
cement,  81 ;  collars  and  cuffs, 
130;  cows  (milch),  115;  gloves 
(leather),  130;  granite,  80;  hay, 
97-98;  hops,  no;  horses,  118; 
hosiery,  130;  mineral  waters,  82; 
oats,  94 ;  oil,  78  ;  paper,  129,  130 ; 
peaches,  101 ;  potatoes,  98 ;  rye, 
94 ;  salt,  83-84,  130. 

New  Zealand,  78,  117,  361,  363. 

Niagara  River,  51. 

Nicaragua,  192,  193,  194. 

Nickel," 74-75,  181,  184,  233. 

Nile  River,  345,  352. 

Nitrate  of  potash,  334. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  233,  234. 

Norfolk,  Va.,  45. 

Normandy,  261. 

Norsemen,  the,  37. 

North  Carolina,  production  in,  of  barytes, 
85;  corundum,  83;  cotton,  103; 
cotton  goods,  128 ;  mica,  85 ;  rice, 
99;  soapstone,  84;  tin,  69;  to- 
bacco, no. 

North  Dakota,  94,  143.  ^ 

North  Sea  Ship  Canal,  278. 

North  Shields,  251. 

Norway,  94,  306-307,  383. 

Nova  Scotia,  178,  205. 

Nuts,  264. 


4O2 


Geography  of  Commerce 


OATS,   production  of,   in  Austria,   295; 
France,  262 ;  Germany,  281 ;  Onta- 
rio,  180;    Siberia,   314;    Sweden, 
306 ;  United  States,  94-95. 
Occupations,  varieties  of,  39. 
Ocean  cables,  169,  372-374. 
Ocean  currents,  10,  184,  205. 
Oceanica,  364-366. 
Ocean  routes,  207-209,  370-372. 
Ocos,  194. 

Oder  River,  281,  284. 
Odessa,  312. 

Ohio,  production  in,  of  cement,  81 ;  coal, 
76,  146;  corn,  89;  cows  (milch), 
115 ;  iron,  64, 128  ;  natural  gas,  79 ; 
oil,  78 ;   pig  iron,  146 ;   potatoes, 
98;  safes  and  vaults,  130;  salt,  84; 
sandstone,  80;   sheep,  116;    steel, 
128;  tobacco,  no. 
Ohio  River,  133,  134. 
Oil,  cod  liver,  184,  307. 
copra,  164. 
cotton-seed,  104. 
flaxseed,  104. 
linseed,  104. 
olive,  271,  291,  339. 
w  palm,  348,  354. 
petroleum,  78-79,  164,  190,  213,  223, 

300,  315,  316,  336,  343. 
seal,  184. 
whale,  122,  307. 
Oilstones,  83. 
Oklahoma,  103,  143. 
Old  Dominion  Mine,  67. 
Oldham,  253. 
Oleomargarine,  115. 
Olives,  101,  225,  264,  271,  291,  302,  338. 
Omaha,  55,  114,  115,  143. 
Oman,  340. 
Onega,  312. 
Onions,  Bermuda,  205. 
Ontario,  Province  of,  179,  180. 
Onyx,  Mexican,  190. 
Opium,  321,  324,  332,  335,  339,  340. 
Opium  poppy  cultivation  (U.S.),  in. 
Oporto,  272. 
Oranges,  101,  170, 189,  198,  225,  264,  271, 

272,  291. 
Orchids,  169. 
Ore,  denned,  60.    , 
Oregon,  no,  116,  141. 


Orinoco  River,  210-211,  214. 

Osaka,  329. 

Ostrich  farming,  351. 

Ottawa,  183. 

Ottoman  Empire.     See  Turkey. 

Ouachita  Mountains,  46,  51. 

Oxus  River,  316. 

Oysters,  44,  122,  130,  181. 

Ozark  Mountains,  46. 

Ozark  Plateau,  51. 

Ozokerite,  80. 

PACIFIC  SLOPE,  the,  57-58. 
fruit  culture  of,  101. 
hop-growing  on,  no. 
pine  timber  of,  105. 
See  also  California. 

Padang,  343. 

Pago  Pago,  166,  365. 

Paisley,  254. 

Palawan,  162. 

Palermo,  292. 

Pampas,  210,  222. 

Panama,  227. 

Panama  Canal.    See  Isthmian  Canal. 

Panama  hats,  229. 

Panay,  162,  165. 

Paper  making,  105,  129,  130,  362. 

Para,  219. 

Paraguay,  212,  225-226. 

Paraguay  River,  216. 

Paraguay  tea,  217-218,  223,  225,  226. 

Paramaribo,  215. 

Parana  River,  211,  216. 

Paris,  244,  265-266. 

Parks,  mountain,  56. 

Patagonia,  222. 

Peaches,  101,  189. 

Pearls,  82,  213,  336,  340,  365. 

Penang,  342. 

Pennsylvania,  production  in,  of  bluestone, 
80;  buckwheat,  98;  carpets,  130; 
cement,  81 ;  clays,  81 ;  coal,  76, 
146;  coke,  130;  cows  (milch),  115; 
glass,  130;  granite,  80;  graphite, 
84 ;  hay,  98  ;  horses,  118  ;  iron,  63, 
128,  130, 146 ;  leather,  130 ;  natural 
gas,  79;  oats,  94;  oil,  78;  peaches, 
101 ;  potatoes,  98 ;  rye,  94 ;  slate, 
80;  soapstone,  84;  steel,  128,  130; 
woolen  manufactures,  117;  zinc,  68. 


Index 


403 


Peoples,  migration  of,  37-38. 

Peoria,  143. 

Peppers,  165,  332,  342.     See  Spices. 

Perim,  340. 

Perique,  i-io. 

Pernambuco,  219. 

Persia,  340-341. 

Perth,  West  Australia,  362-363. 

Peru,  14,  212,  229-231,  383. 

Petroleum,  production  of,  in  Burma,  336 ; 
Mexico,  190 ;  Ontario,  181 ;  Philip- 
pines, 164;  Rumania,  300;  Russia, 
„  78,315,316;  South  America,  213, 
223  ;  United  States,  78-79. 

Philadelphia,  6,  44-45,  48,  50,  117. 

Philippines,  162-165. 

Phosphates,  82,  215,307. 

Phosphorite,  272. 

Pianos,  284. 

Piedmont  Belt,  the,  46,  47-48. 

Pig  iron,  world  production  of,  65  n. 

Pilot  Knob,  51. 

Pinar  del  Rio,  198,  199. 

Pineapples,  101,  163,  168,  170,  189,  198, 
203,  272. 

Pine  barrens,  44. 

Pinehurst,  tea-growing  experiments,  no. 

Pine  lands,  44. 

Pines,  varieties  of,  105.  • 

Piraeus,  304. 

Pitt  River,  57. 

Pittsburg,  49,  64,  125,  133,  134. 

Placer  deposits,  71. 

Plains,  the  Great  (U.S.),  54-55. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  82,  265. 

Platinum,  60,  73,  314,  317. 

Plumbago,  84. 

Plums,  301. 

Poitiers,  262. 

Poland,  309,  311. 

Polders,  275. 

Poles,  the,  36. 

Polynesia,  365. 

Ponce,  Porto  Rico,  171. 

Population,  of  Africa,  352;  Alaska,  173; 
Argentina,  222;  Asia  (map),  242; 
Austria-Hungary,  295;  Belgium, 
275  ;  Bermudas,  205  ;  Brazil,  216- 
217,  219;  Canada,  179;  Central 
America,  194,  195;  Ceylon,  336; 
China,  319,  323,  324;  Europe 


(map),  238;  France,  262;  Ger- 
many, 28-1;  Great  Britain,  258; 
Guam,  165;  Hawaii,  166,  169; 
Holland,  278;  Hong-Kong,  324; 
India,  332,  333 ;  Italy,  289 ;  Japan, 
326;  Mexico,  190,  192;  Ocean- 
ica,  364;  Philippines,  162-163; 
Porto  Rico,  169,  171 ;  Portugal, 
271;  Russia,  310,  313,314;  Samoa, 
166;  South  America,  211,  212, 
219,  222,  224,  225,  226,  229,  231; 
Spain,  271 ;  West  Indies,  204. 
centers  of,  96,  124-125,  127. 
increase  of,  in  proportion  to  increase 

of  cereal  production,  96-97. 
relation  between  trade  and,  126-127. 
world's  increase  (1800-1900),  380. 
Porcelain  industry,  in  Austria-Hungary, 
296 ;    China,  321 ;    Dresden,  284 ; 
France,  265;  Japan,  328. 
Po  River,  240,  290. 

Pork  packing,  115.    See  Meat  packing. 
Port  Alfred,  356. 
Port  Arthur,  315. 
Port  Elizabeth,  356. 
Port  Glasgow,  254. 
Portland,  Me.,  47. 

Canadian  trade  through,  183. 
Portland,  Ore.,  58. 
Porto  Rico,  99,  169-171,  200-202. 
Port  Said,  355. 
Portsmouth,  N.H.,  47. 
Portugal,  270-273,  383. 

dependencies  of,  in  Africa,  347,  352. 
Portuguese,  the,  36,  166. 
in  Brazil,  216. 
in  Hong-Kong,  324. 
Port  wine,  272. 
Potassium  salts,  283. 
Potatoes,  98,  180,  193,  205,  256,  257,  281- 

282,  306,  310-311. 
Potomac  River,  48. 
Potteries,  American,  129,  130,  159. 
English,  253. 
French,  265. 
Mexican,  190. 

Poultry  raising,  118,  306,  308. 
Prague,  298. 

Prairies  of  the  Middle  West,  51-52. 
Precious  stones.    See  Gems. 
Preston,  253. 


404 


Geography  of  Commerce 


Pribyloff  Islands,  174. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  178. 

Progreso,  192. 

Prunes,  101. 

Prussia,  production  of  zinc  in,  69. 

Puerto  Barrios,  194. 

Puerto  Cabello,  214. 

Puerto  Colombia,  227. 

Puerto  Cortez,  194. 

Puerto  Limon,  194. 

Puerto  Principe,  199. 

Puget  Sound,  142. 

Pulque,  189. 

Puna  lands,  229. 

Punjab,  332,  334. 

Punta  Arenas,  194,  234. 

Pyrenees  Mountains,  242,  261,  270. 

Pyrite,  61,  74. 

QUEBEC,  PROVINCE  OF,  178-179. 

Quebracho  wood,  223. 

Queensland,  360,  361,  362. 

Queenstown,  257. 

Quicksilver,  73,  271-272,  295,  314,  342. 

Quinine,  227,  228,  231,  332. 

Quito,  229. 

RACES,  distinctive  traits  of,  39-40. 
division  of  men  into,  35-37. 

Railroads,  in  Africa,  349,  351-352,  384; 
Argentina,  224;  Brazil,  219;  Can- 
ada, 183;  Central  America,  194; 
Chile,  233;  China,  322;  Cuba, 
199;  Europe,  244-246;  France, 
262,  263,  267;  Germany,  28^; 
India,  336;  Italy,  292;  Japan,  329; 
Philippines,  163;  Rumania,  300; 
Russia,  237,  244, 310,  315,  316,  318  ; 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  307 ;  Si- 
beria, 244, 315, 318 ;  South  America, 
214,  232,  384;  Turkey,  302,338; 
United  States,  52, 124,  137,  384. 
total  mileage  of  (world) ,  384. 
traffic  on,  in  United  States,  136-137. 

Rainfall,  forests  and,  28. 
distribution  of,  14-15. 

Raisins,  101,  271. 

Raleigh,  45. 

Ranch  states  of  United  States,  114. 

Rand,  the,  355-356. 

Range  states,  88.  % 


Ranges,  grazing,  in  United  States,  113. 

Rangoon,  336. 

Recife,  219. 

Redwoods,  California,  57,  106. 

Refrigerator  cars,  102,  113,  129. 

Reims,  266. 

Resin,  105,  130,  363. 

Rhea  fiber,  321. 

Rhine  River,  240,  242,  281,  282. 

Rhode  Island,  76,  84,  130. 

Rhodesia,  347. 

Rhone  River,  240,  265,  266. 

Rice,  distribution  of  (map),  99. 

Rice  growing,  in  Central  America,  193 ; 
Ceylon,  336 ;  China,  321 ;  Guam, 
165  ;  Hawaii,  168  ;  India,  332,  335 ; 
Japan,  327;  Philippine  Islands, 
163;  United  States,  99. 

Richmond,  45,  48. 

Riga,  311. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  218,  369,  371. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  218,  219. 

Rio  Negro,  210. 

River  and  Harbor  Bill  (U.S.),  133. 

Rivers,  of  Africa,  353;  Appalachian 
Highland,  50;  Atlantic  Slope,  48  ; 
Cordilleran  region,  57;  New  Eng- 
land, 47 ;  Pacific  Slope,  57  ;  Russia, 
309-310;  South  America,  210-21 1. 
relation  of,  to  commerce,  2. 

River  traffic  in  United  States,  132-134. 

Rocks  of  the  Lake  Region,  51 ;  New 
England,  46 ;  Newer  Appalachian 
Belt,  48. 

Rocky  Mountain  Region,  timber  of,  105. 

Rocky  Mountains,  the,  55. 

production   in,  of   copper,  66;   iron 
ore,  63 ;  lead,  67-68 ;  silver,  70. 

Rose  growing,  302. 

Rosewood,  189. 

Rotation  of  crops,  97. 

Rotterdam,  278. 

Roubaix,  266. 

Rouen,  266,  267. 

Rubber,  163,  193,  213,1217,  218,  219,  227, 
228,  229,  230,  231,  232,  336,  348, 

354,  364,  365- 
Rubies,  336. 
Rugs,  302,  334,  339. 
Rum,  213,  215. 
Rumania,  91,  299-300. 


Index 


405 


Russia,  ii,  186,  309-318. 

commerce  of,  with  China,  323 ;  France, 
262,268;  Germany,  286, 3 17;  Great 
Britain,  259,  317  ;  Persia,  341 ;  Tur- 
key, 339;  United  States,  317-318. 
currency  of,  383. 
productions  of,  65  n.,  73,  84,  91,  93, 

115,  310-311,  314-315,  316-317- 
Russians,  the,  36,  242,  243. 
Rutland,  Vt.,  marble  quarries  at,  81. 
Rye,  4.  93-94-  295-  306,  310,  317,  327. 

SACRAMENTO  RIVER,  57. 

Safes,  130. 

Sago,  344. 

Sahara  Desert,  241, 346. 

St.  Anthony's  Falls,  125. 

St.  Etienne,  266. 

St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  184. 

St.  Joseph,  143. 

St.  Kitts,  202. 

St.  Lawrence  River,  177-178. 

St.  Lawrence  Valley,  48. 

St.  Louis,  French  Guiana,  215. 

St.  Louis,  U.S.A.,  55,  141-142,  143,  147. 

St.  Lucia,  202. 

St.  Mary's  Canal,  134,  135,  183. 

St.  Mary's  Falls,  134,  136. 

St.  Nazaire,  266. 

St.  Paul,  133. 

St.  Petersburg,  244,  311,  315. 

St.  Quentin,  266. 

St.  Vincent,  202. 

Sakhalin  Island,  314-315. 

Salmon  fisheries,  121,  173,  181. 

Salt,  83,  130,  170,  190,  199,  213,  223,  227, 

272,  283,  295,  300,  315,  339,  341. 
Salt  Lake  City,  56. 
Saltpeter,  233,  234,  334. 
Salvador,  192,  193,  194,  195. 
Samai',  162. 
Samoan  Islands,  166. 
San  Bias,  192. 
Sandakan,  344. 
Sandalwood,  170,  365. 
Sandstone,  80. 
San  Francisco,  58,  122. 
San  Francisco  Mountain,  57. 
San  Jose,  Guatemala,  194. 
San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  171. 
San  Juan  del  Sur,  194. 


San  Luis  Valley,  56. 

Santa  Clara  province,  Cuba,  199. 

Santiago,  Chile,  233. 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  199. 

Santo  Domingo,  204. 

Saone  River,  240,  265,  267,  268. 

Sapan  wood,  164. 

Sapphires,  83. 

Sardines,  American,  121. 

Sardinia,  290. 

Sarsaparilla,  193,  228,  229. 

Saskatchewan  River,  177-178. 

Savannah,  6,  45,  145. 

Sawatch  Range,  55. 

Saxony,  281,  282,  284. 

Scandinavia,  n,  305-308. 

Scheldt  River,  274,  275. 

Scotch,  the,  36. 

Scotland,  94,  95,  251,  254. 

Sealing,  pelagic,  181. 

Seattle,  58. 

Sebastopol,  312. 

Seine  River,  262,  265. 

Selvas,  210. 

Semi-arid  regions  (U.S.),  97. 

Semmering  Pass,  296. 

Senegal,  354. 

Sequoia  trees,  57. 

Serpentine  building  stone,  81. 

Servia,  301. 

Servians,  the,  36,  242-243. 

Seville,  272. 

Seychelles,  364. 

Shanghai,  323. 

Shannon  River,  258. 

Shan  states,  342. 

Shawls,  Indian,  334. 

Sheep,  distribution  of  (map),  116. 
pasturing  of,  in  forests,  30,  32. 

Sheep  raising,  in  Argentina,  222, 224, 361 ; 
Australia,  361;  Belgium,  276; 
Central  America,  193 ;  France, 
265;  Great  Britain,  249,  252,  256; 
Iceland,  308 ;  Mexico,  189 ;  South 
Africa,  117,  355-356;  South 
America,  222,  225,  230,  231,  233; 
Spain,  271 ;  Transcaucasia,  315- 
316;  United  States,  116-117. 

Sheffield,  252. 

Shenandoah  Valley,  the,  48,  69. 

Shikoku,  326. 


406 


Geography  of  Commerce 


Shipbuilding,  in  Great  Britain,  252,  254, 
257 ;  United  States,  140-141. 

Shipping,  of  Canada,  183 ;  Germany,  286, 
384;  Great  Britain,  256,  259,  384; 
Holland,  278, 384 ;  Japan,  329, 384 ; 
Norway,  307,  384;  United  States, 
140-141,  152-153,  207-209,  384. 
benefit  to,  of  weather  forecasts,  21-23. 
ocean  routes  of,  207-209,  370-372. 
prospects  of  American,  379-381. 
total  (world) ,  384. 

Siam,  342. 

Siberia,  25,  36,  239,  247,  313-315. 

Sicily,  289-290. 

Siderite,  61,  64. 

Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  57. 

Silesia,  69,  282,  284,  295,  296. 

Silk  culture,  265,  291,  321,  327,  332,  339. 

Silk  manufactures,  266,  268,  272,  283,  289, 
295,  316,  321,  327,  332,  334. 

Silver,  distribution  of  (map) ,  70. 
lead  as  a  by-product  of,  67. 
production   of,   in   Austria-Hungary, 
295 ;   China,  321 ;  Germany,  282 ; 
Mexico,     189-190,     192;     South 
America,   213,  219,  223,  227,  230, 
23X»   233!     Spain    and    Portugal, 
271 ;  United  States,  70-71. 
world's  production  of  (diagram),  71. 

Singapore,  342. 

Sir  Daria  River,  316. 

Sisal  hemp,  189,  203. 

Sitka,  173. 

Slate,  80. 

Slaughter-houses,  114,  129,  130.  See 
Meat  packing. 

Slavs,  the,  36,  242. 

Sligo,  257. 

Slope  exposure,  effect  on  vegetation,  18. 

Smelting-works,  64. 

Smyrna,  338,  339. 

Snake  River,  57. 

Soapstone,  84. 

Society  Islands,  366. 

Socotra,  364. 

Soda,  production  of  (U.  S.),  84-85. 

Sofia,  302. 

Soil,  of  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  44;  China, 
319;  England,  249-251;  Hawaii, 
168 ;  Holland,  277 ;  New  England, 
46;  Pacific  Slope,  58;  Philippine 


Islands,  162;  Piedmont  Belt,  47- 
48;  the  prairies  (U.S.),  52. 
effect  on,  of  hop  raising,  no. 
for  growing  buckwheat,  98 ;    maize, 

90;  oats,  94-95;  wheat,  91. 
impoverishment  of,  by  tobacco,  109. 
relation  of,  to  commerce,  3-4. 
"  Soo,"  the,  134,  135,  183. 
Sorghum,  97,  101,  320,  350. 
South  Africa,  117,  355-356. 
South  America,  97,  207-234,  259. 
Southampton,  257. 
South  Australia,  360,  362. 
South  Carolina,  production  in,  of  barytes, 
85 ;  cotton,  103  ;  cotton  goods,  128 ; 
phosphates,  82 ;  rice,  99. 
South  Chicago,  64,  146. 
South   Dakota,  production  in,  of  anti- 
mony, 74;  barley,  94;  cattle,  143; 
granite,  80;  mica,  85. 
Southern  Coastal  Plain,  45-46. 
South  Shields,  252. 
Spain,  270-273,  383. 

commerce  of,  171,  186,  195,  273. 
products  of,  66,  68,  73, 93,  256,  271. 
Spanish,  the,  36,  242. 
Spelter,  68. 
Spice  Islands,  343. 
Spices,  165,  170,  203,  332,  336,  342-343, 

35°.  354- 

Spokane,  57. 

Sponges,  122-123,  203,  213,  338. 

Spree  River,  284. 

Spring,  advent  of,  17,  18. 

Staked  Plains,  the,  54. 

Standard  Time  system,  138-139. 

Steatite,  84. 

Steel,  64,  128,  130,  264,  311. 

world's  production  of  (diagram),  64. 

Steppe  Region  (U.S.),  54-55. 

Stockholm,  306. 

Stock  raising,  in  Africa,  351 ;  Australia, 
360-361;  Belgium,  276;  Central 
America,  193;  Ceylon,  336;  Den- 
mark, 307 ;  France,  264 ;  Germany, 
282;  Great  Britain,  256,  257;  Hol- 
land, 277;  Hungary,  294,  295; 
India,  332;  Italy,  290;  New  Zea- 
land, 363  ;  Porto  Rico,  170;  Prov- 
ince of  Ontario,  180;  Rumania, 
299;  Russia,  311;  Servia,  301; 


Index 


407 


South  America,  213,  218,  222,  225, 
226, 230,  233 ;  Sweden,  306 ;  United 
States,  55-56,  144;  West  Indies, 
198.  See  Cattle  raising. 

Stockton-on-Tees,  252. 

Stoke-on-Trent,  253. 

Stones  for  building.    See  Building  stones. 

Storm  signals,  21-23. 

Straits  Settlements,  342-343. 
tin  from,  69,  254. 

Strawberries,  101. 

Stuttgart,  284. 

Styria,  294. 

Sucre,  232. 

Sudan,  346,  353. 

Suez  Canal,  136,  244,  355,  376-377. 

Sugar,  beet,  99-100, 171,  203,  204,  262,  276, 
__28i,  282,  295,  311,  317. 
cane,  99-100,  163,  164,  165,  168,  170, 
171, 172, 193, 198,  203, 204,  212-213, 
215,  223,  225,  226,  228,  229,  230, 
332,  342,  343,  350,  361,  364,  365. 
maple,  lor. 

production  of,  in  Belgium,  276;  Cen- 
tral America,  193  ;  China,  321, 322 ; 
Cuba,  99,  198;  France,  100,  262; 
Germany,  100,  281 ;  Guam,  165 ; 
Hawaii,  99,  168,  172 ;  Hungary, 
295;  India,  332;  Philippines,  163, 
164,  172;  Porto  Rico,  99,  170,  171, 
172;  Rumania,  299;  Russia,  311; 
Samoa,  166;  South  America,  212, 
213,  215,  217,  218,  223,  226,  228, 
230;  United  States,  99-101 ;  West 
Indies,  203. 

world's  production  of  beet  and  cane 
(1871-1900),  205. 

Sulphur,  60,  61,  84,  164,  213,  291,  292, 314. 

Sulu  Archipelago,  162. 

Sumatra,  343. 

Sunderland,  252. 

Superior,  92,  135,  142,  143. 

Surinam,  215. 

Susquehanna  River,  48. 

Suva,  365. 

Swansea,  254. 

Sweden,  65  n.,  305-306,  383. 

Swine,  115,  256,  281,  282. 

Switzerland,  30,  288-289,  383. 
commerce  of,  186,  289,  293. 

Swords,  Toledo,  272. 


Sydney,  N.S.W. 
Syra,  304. 
Syria,  338. 


362. 


TABRIZ,  341. 

Tacoma,  58. 

Tahiti,  366. 

Talc,  84. 

Tampico,  192. 

Tan  bark,  106,  128-129,  ^9> 

Tanganyika,  Lake,  352. 

Tangier,  356. 

Tapioca,  350. 

Tar,  44,  105. 

Tariff,  Canada's  preferential,  182. 

Tariffs,  British,  259. 

Taro,  365. 

Tasmania,  69,  360. 

Tea,  brick,  323. 

distribution  of  (map),  320. 

planting  of,  in  United  States,  no. 

production  of,  in  Ceylon,  336 ;  China, 
321-323;    Formosa,    330;    India, 
336;  Japan,  327. 
Teak,  332,  336,  342,  348. 
Telegraph  systems,  submarine,  169,  372- 

374,  375- 

Temperature,  connection  between  com- 
merce and,  18. 

connection  between  forests  and,  28. 

control,  87. 

distribution  of,  9-11. 
Tennessee,  products  of,  82,  85,  103, 146. 
Teton  Range,  55. 
Teutons,  the,  36,  242. 
Texas,  production  in,  of  cattle,  114,  143; 
coal,  76;   cotton,  103,  130;   cows 
(milch),  115;  oats,  94;  oil,  78. 
Thames  River,  256. 
Tibet,  319. 
Tibetans,  the,  36. 
Ticonderoga,  N.Y.,  84. 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  232. 
Tiflis,  316.    - 
Tigris  River,  338,  339. 
Till,  46,  52. 
Timber,  distinguished  from  lumber,  105. 

exportation  of,  from   United  States, 
108-109. 

lake  commerce  in  (U.S.),  147. 

production  of,  in  Alaska,  173 ;  Guam, 


408 


Geography  of  Commerce 


165;  Mexico,  189;  Norway,  305, 
306,  307;  Philippines,  163-164; 
Porto  Rico,  170;  Rumania,  299- 
300 ;  Scandinavia,  305-306. 

Timbuctu,  357. 

Time  belts  in  United  States,  138-139. 

Timothy  grass,  97. 

Tin,  production  of,  in  China,  321 ;  Corn- 
wall, 69,  254,  256 ;  Mexico,  190, 
192;  Russia,  314;  South  America, 
213,  219,  227,  230,  231,  233 ;  Straits 
Settlements,  69,  254, 342-343 ;  Tas- 
mania, 69;  United  States,  69, 159. 

Tin  plate,  69. 

Titicaca,  Lake,  230,  232. 

Tobacco  raising,  in  Brazil,  217 ;  Central 
America,  193;  Ceylon,  336;  Co- 
lombia, 226-227  '•  Cuba,  198 ; 
France,  262;  Germany,  281-282; 
Guam,  165 ;  India,  332 ;  Mexico, 
189,  192;  Paraguay,  225;  Peru, 
230;  Philippines,  163,  164;  Porto 
Rico,  170,  172;  Rumania,  299; 
Russia,  311 ;  Turkey,  338 ;  United 
States,  45,  109;  West  Indies,  203. 

Tobago,  202. 

Tokio,  329. 

Toledo,  Ohio,  143. 

Toledo,  Spain,  272. 

Tonga,  365-366. 

Tongking,  342. 

Toronto,  183. 

Tortoise  shell,  203,  213,  365. 

Tourane,  342. 

Tourcoing,  266. 

Trade,  relation  between,  and  population, 
126-127. 

Trade  routes,  207-209,  370-372. 

Trade  winds,  13, 166,  241. 

Tramp  steamers,  371-372. 

Transbaikalia,  315. 

Transcaspia,  313,  316. 

Transcaucasia,  313,  315-316. 

Transylvania,  295. 

Tree  claims,  32. 

Trees,  of  Africa,  348-350 ;  Australia,  359 ; 

United  States,  87-88,  104-108. 
absence  from  prairies  explained,  52. 
See  Forests  and  Timber. 

Trenton,  129. 

Trieste,  298. 


Trinidad,  80,  202,  204. 

Tripoli,  348,  356. 

Triumfo,  194. 

-Trolley  cars  in  United  States,  139. 

Tromso,  307. 

Tropics,  colonization  and  control  in,  155. 

labor  conditions  in,  24. 
Tulips,  Dutch,  277. 
Tundra,  310. 
Tunis,  356. 
Tunisia,  348. 

Tunnels,  Alpine,  242,  244,  266,  288,  292. 
Turin,  242,  292. 
Turkestan,  36,  313,  316,  319. 
Turkey,  91,  301-302,  338-339,  383. 
Turks,  Ottoman,  36. 
Turks  Island,  205. 
Turpentine,  44,  105,  130. 
Turquoise,  82. 
Tutuila,  166,  365. 
Tyne,  River,  251. 
Tynemouth,  251. 
Tyrol,  the,  294. 

UGANDA,  347. 

Uintah  Range,  55. 

United  Kingdom,  249-259. 

United  States,  5,  n,  15-20,  43-124. 

commerce  of,  with  Africa,  357 ;  Aus- 
tralia, 361-362 ;  Belgium,  276 ;  Ber- 
mudas, 205 ;  Central  America,  195, 
207 ;  China,  323 ;  Cuba,  197,  200 ; 
France,  262,  268 ;  Germany,  286, 
287;  Great  Britain,  259;  Holland, 
279;  India,  334-335;  Italy,  293; 
Japan,  328,  329;  Mexico,  190, 192, 
207;  New  Zealand,  363;  Russia, 
317-318 ;  South  America,  207-209, 
213,  215,  217,  219-220,  224,  225, 
226,  227-228,  229,  230,  234;  Swit- 
zerland, 289 ;  West  Indian  Islands, 
203-204,  207. 

internal  commerce  of,  124-147. 
outlying  possessions  of,  162-174. 
trade  outlook  of,  150-159,  377-381. 

United  States  Fish  Commission,  121-122. 

United  States  Weather  Bureau,  21-23. 

United  Verde  Mine,  67. 

Upland  terrace,  the,  44,  47. 

Ural  Mountains,  237,  309,  314. 

Uruguay,  200,  212,  224-225,  276,  383. 


Inde, 


409 


Uruguay  River,  211. 

Utah,  production  in,  of  beet  sugar,  100; 

copper,  67 ;  cotton,  103 ;  gold,  72 ; 

sheep,  116;  silver,  70;  sulphur,  84. 

VALENCIA,  214. 

Valleys,  of  Newer  Appalachian  Belt,  48. 
sunken,  of  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain,  45; 

Pacific  Slope,  58. 
Valparaiso,  233-234. 
Vancouver,  184. 
Vanilla,  189,  193,  213,  366. 
Vegetable  gardening,  101-102,  168,  205, 

256,  262,  273,  277,  361. 
Vegetable  products  (U.S.), 87-111. 
Vegetation,  slope  exposure  and,  18-19. 
Velvet  manufactures,  283. 
Venezuela,  208,  212-214,  383. 
Venezuelan  Boundary  Dispute,  214. 
Venice,  290,  292. 
Vera  Cruz,  192. 
Vermont,  80,  81,  83. 
Verviers,  275. 

Victoria,  Australia,  360,  361. 
Victoria,  B.C.,  184. 
Victoria,  Hong-Kong,  324. 
Victoria  Falls,  355. 
Vienna,  244,  296. 
Viniculture,  in  France,  264;  Italy,  291; 

Russia,  311 ;  United  States,  101. 
Virginia ,  production  in,  of  barytes,  85; 

cotton,  103;   granite,  80;    horses, 

118;  manganese,    74;    soapstone, 

84;  tobacco,  no. 
Virginia  City,  56,  70. 
Vistula  River,  281. 
Viti  Levu,  365. 
Vladivostok,  315. 
Volcanoes,  ancient,  of  the  Cordilleran 

region,  56-57. 
in  Japan,   326;    Malay  Archipelago, 

343 ;  Mexico,  187 ;  South  America, 

212,  228. 

Volga  River,  309-310. 
Vosges  Mountains,  261,  267,  283. 

WAGON  ROADS,  in  South  America,  214, 
227,  233 ;  United  States,  139-140. 
Wakefield,  England,  252. 
Wales,  254. 
Warsaw,  311. 


Wasatch  Range,  55. 

Washington,  B.C.,  45,  48. 

Washington  (state),  coal  in,  146. 
hop  growing  in,  no. 
shipbuilding  in,  141. 

Watches,  American,  164,  362. 
English,  254. 
Swiss,  289. 

Waterford,  Ireland,  257. 

Waterways,  of  Africa,  353  rt  China,  321- 
322;  Canada,  177-178,  182-183; 
Europe,  244 ;  France,  267-268 ; 
Germany,  284,  285-286;  Russia, 
309-310;  South  America,  210- 
2ii ;  United  States,  132-136. 

Weather,  influence  on  commerce,  20-24. 

Welland  Ship  Canal,  136,  183. 

Wellesley  Province,  342. 

Wellington,  New  Zealand,  363. 

Weser  River,  281. 

West  Australia,  360,  361. 

West  Indies,  197-205. 

Westerlies,  the,  13. 

West  Virginia,  production  in,  of  bromine, 
85 ;  coal,  76, 146 ;  natural  gas,  79 ; 
oil,  78 ;  salt,  84. 

Whale  fisheries,  122,  255,  307,  308,  365. 

Wheat  growing,  in  Argentina,  222,  223 ; 
Australia,  361;  Chile,  232-233; 
China,  320 ;  France,  93,  262 ;  Ger- 
many, 93,  281 ;  Hungary,  295 ; 
India,  335  ;  Italy,  93,  290 ;  Japan, 
327  ;  Manitoba,  180  ;  Ontario,  180; 
Rumania,  299;  Siberia,  314; 
United  States,  56,  91-93,  142. 

Whetstones,  83. 

Whips,  130. 

Whisky,  94. 

Wigan,  253. 

Wilderness,  the  Appalachian,  49-50. 

Wilmington,  N.C.,  45. 

Wind  River  Range,  55. 

Winds,  periodic,  13-14. 

Wines,  of  France,  264,  268 ;  Germany, 
282 ;  Italy,  291 ;  United  States,  101. 

Winnipeg,  184. 

Wisconsin,  production  in,  of  barley,  94; 
cows  (milch),  115;  granite,  80; 
manganese,  74 ;  mineral  waters, 
82;  oats,  94;  potatoes,  98;  rye, 
94;  tobacco,  no. 


4io 


Geography  of  Commerce 


Wolverhampton,  253. 

Wood-pulp,  105,  129,  130,  179-180,  306. 

Wool,  importation  of,  into  United  States, 

«7.  159- 

production  of,  in  Argentina,  222,  361 ; 
Australia,  361,  362;  France,  265, 
268;  Great  Britain,  252;  Hawaii, 
168;  Mexico,  189;  South  Amer- 
ica, 225,  230,  231 ;  Spain,  271  ; 
Transcaucasia,  315-316 ;  United 
States,  117,  150. 

world's  production  in  1901  (diagram), 
362. 

Woolen  manufactures,  117, 159, 231,  252, 
254,  265,  266, 275, 283-284, 296,  300. 

Wyoming,  114,  116,  143,  146. 

YALE,  forestry  taught  at,  30. 

Yams,  165,  365. 

Yangtse-Kiang  River,  319,  320,  321. 


Yellowstone  'Park,  56. 
Yenisei  River,  315. 
Yew  trees,  350. 
Yezo,  326,  327, 329. 
Yokohama,  329. 
Yosemite  Valley,  57. 
Yucatan,  192. 
Yukon  River,  173,  174. 

ZACATECAS,  190. 

Zambesi  River,  346,  348,  355. 

Zamboanga,  165. 

Zanzibar,  348,  354,  356. 

Zapata,  197. 

Zebras,  346,  351. 

Zinc,  68-69,  219,  230,  233,  271,  282,  291, 

306.  342. 
Zollverein,  286. 
Zuider  Zee,  278. 
Zurich,  289. 


MACMILLAN'S  COMMERCIAL  SERIES 

EDITED  BY 

CHEESMAN    A.    HERRICK,    Ph.D. 

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"GEOGRAPHY  OF   COMMERCE"  (Nmo  ready) 

By  DR.  SPENCER  TROTTER, 

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"RAW  MATERIALS   OF   COMMERCE" 

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"ECONOMICS   OF  COMMERCE" 

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